A 32-year-old woman undergoes laparoscopic excision of ovarian endometrioma. During surgery with the patient in Trendelenburg position and pneumoperitoneum at 15 mmHg, the anesthesiologist notes peak airway pressures rising from 25 to 40 cmH2O, oxygen saturation dropping to 88%, and blood pressure decreasing. Apply the appropriate immediate intervention.
Q2
A 65-year-old man with locally advanced rectal cancer 6 cm from the anal verge completes neoadjuvant chemoradiation with good response. MRI shows tumor downsizing to 3 cm with no nodal involvement. The patient strongly prefers sphincter preservation. The surgeon can perform either open low anterior resection or robotic-assisted total mesorectal excision. Evaluate the optimal approach considering oncologic and functional outcomes.
Q3
A 50-year-old man with morbid obesity (BMI 48) undergoes laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy. On postoperative day 5, he develops tachycardia, oliguria, and confusion. CT shows a small fluid collection along the staple line. Drain output is minimal. He is started on antibiotics. Twenty-four hours later, he remains tachycardic with rising lactate despite fluids. Evaluate the management priority.
Q4
A 28-year-old woman undergoes diagnostic laparoscopy for chronic pelvic pain. During trocar insertion using the Veress needle technique, the surgeon advances the needle through the umbilicus. Aspiration returns free-flowing blood. The patient remains hemodynamically stable. Evaluate the most appropriate next step in management.
Q5
A 42-year-old woman undergoes laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication for GERD refractory to medical therapy. Intraoperatively, the surgeon creates a 360-degree wrap using the gastric fundus around the distal esophagus. Six weeks postoperatively, she presents with severe dysphagia to solids and liquids, inability to belch, and bloating after meals. Analyze the most likely cause.
Q6
A 70-year-old man with COPD and FEV1 of 45% predicted is diagnosed with a 3 cm peripheral lung nodule in the right lower lobe. PET scan shows high FDR uptake, and biopsy confirms adenocarcinoma. No mediastinal involvement or distant metastases. Analyze the optimal surgical approach.
Q7
A 55-year-old obese man with BMI 42 undergoes laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. On postoperative day 2, he develops tachycardia (120 bpm), low-grade fever, and left shoulder pain. His abdomen is soft with mild tenderness. Hemoglobin is stable. Analyze the most likely diagnosis.
Q8
A 38-year-old woman undergoes laparoscopic appendectomy for acute appendicitis. During dissection of the mesoappendix, the surgeon inadvertently injures the iliac vessels. Brisk bleeding obscures the field. Apply the immediate next step.
Q9
A 62-year-old man undergoes laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair with mesh placement. On postoperative day 3, he develops fever, scrotal swelling, and erythema extending to the inner thigh. CT shows fluid collection in the inguinal region with gas bubbles. Apply the appropriate management.
Q10
A 45-year-old woman with symptomatic gallstones is scheduled for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. During trocar insertion, the surgeon notices sudden loss of visualization and distension. The patient becomes hypotensive with subcutaneous emphysema noted on the abdomen. End-tidal CO2 is rising. Apply the immediate management steps.
Minimally Invasive Surgery US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Question 1: A 32-year-old woman undergoes laparoscopic excision of ovarian endometrioma. During surgery with the patient in Trendelenburg position and pneumoperitoneum at 15 mmHg, the anesthesiologist notes peak airway pressures rising from 25 to 40 cmH2O, oxygen saturation dropping to 88%, and blood pressure decreasing. Apply the appropriate immediate intervention.
A. Increase tidal volume and respiratory rate
B. Increase FiO2 and administer fluid bolus only
C. Release pneumoperitoneum and decrease Trendelenburg (Correct Answer)
D. Administer bronchodilators for bronchospasm
E. Check for endobronchial intubation and reposition tube
Explanation: ***Release pneumoperitoneum and decrease Trendelenburg***
- High **peak airway pressures** (40 cmH2O), **hypoxemia**, and **hypotension** indicate severe physiological compromise from **pneumoperitoneum** and positioning.
- Releasing the gas and leveling the patient immediately facilitates **diaphragmatic descent**, increases **lung compliance**, and restores **venous return** to improve cardiac output.
*Increase tidal volume and respiratory rate*
- Increasing **tidal volume** in the presence of already high airway pressures significantly increases the risk of **barotrauma** and further cardiovascular collapse.
- This intervention does not address the mechanical cause of **diaphragmatic splinting** caused by the CO2 insufflation.
*Increase FiO2 and administer fluid bolus only*
- While oxygenation may temporarily improve, this fails to correct the **reduced functional residual capacity** caused by the **positive pressure** in the abdomen.
- Fluids may not compensate for the **inferior vena cava compression** if the source of high **intra-abdominal pressure** remains unchanged.
*Administer bronchodilators for bronchospasm*
- High airway pressures in laparoscopy are usually due to **decreased thoracic compliance**, not necessarily **bronchospasm**.
- The sudden drop in blood pressure suggests a hemodynamic/mechanical cause rather than an isolated **obstructive lung** pathology.
*Check for endobronchial intubation and reposition tube*
- While cephalad movement of the diaphragm can cause **endobronchial intubation**, it does not typically explain the systemic **hypotension** seen here.
- This step should follow the **immediate release** of abdominal pressure, which is the most life-threatening contributor to the current vitals.
Question 2: A 65-year-old man with locally advanced rectal cancer 6 cm from the anal verge completes neoadjuvant chemoradiation with good response. MRI shows tumor downsizing to 3 cm with no nodal involvement. The patient strongly prefers sphincter preservation. The surgeon can perform either open low anterior resection or robotic-assisted total mesorectal excision. Evaluate the optimal approach considering oncologic and functional outcomes.
A. Open low anterior resection for better tactile feedback
B. Abdominoperineal resection for oncologic safety
C. Transanal endoscopic microsurgery for organ preservation
D. Robotic-assisted TME for improved visualization in pelvis (Correct Answer)
E. Watch and wait approach given excellent response
Explanation: ***Robotic-assisted TME for improved visualization in pelvis***
- **Robotic surgery** provides a **3D high-definition view** and **wristed instrumentation**, which is particularly advantageous for precise dissection in the narrow male pelvis.
- This approach facilitates **sphincter preservation** while maintaining equivalent **oncologic outcomes**, such as circumferential resection margin (CRM) clearance, compared to open surgery.
*Open low anterior resection for better tactile feedback*
- While offering **tactile feedback**, the open approach is more technically challenging in the deep pelvis and is associated with **increased blood loss** and longer recovery times.
- It lacks the **magnified visualization** and ergonomic benefits offered by robotic platforms, which are crucial for preserving **pelvic autonomic nerves**.
*Abdominoperineal resection for oncologic safety*
- This procedure entails the permanent removal of the **anal sphincter** and creation of a colostomy, which contradicts the patient's strong preference for **sphincter preservation**.
- Since the tumor is 6 cm from the **anal verge** and responded well to therapy, a low anterior resection is oncologically safe and clinically appropriate.
*Transanal endoscopic microsurgery for organ preservation*
- **Transanal endoscopic microsurgery (TEM)** is generally reserved for **early-stage (T1)** tumors without high-risk features and is not the standard for locally advanced cancer.
- It does not allow for a complete **total mesorectal excision (TME)** or assessment of regional lymph nodes, leading to a high risk of **local recurrence** in this case.
*Watch and wait approach given excellent response*
- This strategy requires a **clinical complete response (cCR)**, which means no visible tumor on endoscopy or MRI; this patient still has a **3 cm residual mass**.
- Implementing "watch and wait" for a patient with persistent tumor significantly increases the risk of **disease progression** and missing the window for curative surgery.
Question 3: A 50-year-old man with morbid obesity (BMI 48) undergoes laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy. On postoperative day 5, he develops tachycardia, oliguria, and confusion. CT shows a small fluid collection along the staple line. Drain output is minimal. He is started on antibiotics. Twenty-four hours later, he remains tachycardic with rising lactate despite fluids. Evaluate the management priority.
A. Urgent laparoscopic exploration with drainage
B. Increase antibiotic coverage and vasopressor support
C. Continue antibiotics and obtain interventional radiology drainage
D. Endoscopic stent placement across the leak
E. Immediate open exploration, washout, and feeding jejunostomy (Correct Answer)
Explanation: ***Immediate open exploration, washout, and feeding jejunostomy***
- The patient exhibits signs of **septic shock** (tachycardia, rising lactate, confusion) due to a **staple line leak**, which requires immediate surgical source control.
- An **open approach** is preferred over laparoscopy in a deteriorating, morbidly obese patient to ensure thorough **peritoneal washout**, secure drainage, and the placement of a **feeding jejunostomy** for long-term nutritional support.
*Urgent laparoscopic exploration with drainage*
- While laparoscopy is minimally invasive, it is technically difficult in the setting of severe **morbid obesity** and acute inflammation, potentially leading to incomplete **source control**.
- This patient is failing to respond to initial management; therefore, a more definitive and reliable **open exploration** is prioritized to address the clinical deterioration.
*Increase antibiotic coverage and vasopressor support*
- Antibiotics and vasopressors are supportive measures but do not address the primary **surgical pathology**, which is the active leak from the gastric sleeve.
- Relying solely on medical management for **anastomotic leaks** in the presence of rising **lactate** and organ dysfunction (oliguria) allows sepsis to progress to irreversible multi-organ failure.
*Continue antibiotics and obtain interventional radiology drainage*
- **IR drainage** is generally indicated for well-localized fluid collections in **hemodynamically stable** patients.
- Because this patient's collection is small but his **systemic symptoms** are worsening, drainage alone will not achieve the necessary **source control** or mitigate the leak.
*Endoscopic stent placement across the leak*
- **Endoscopic stenting** is a management option for stable patients with chronic or subacute leaks to bypass the defect.
- It is inappropriate for an unstable patient with **postoperative peritonitis** and sepsis, where the immediate priority is **surgical washout** and drainage of the abdominal cavity.
Question 4: A 28-year-old woman undergoes diagnostic laparoscopy for chronic pelvic pain. During trocar insertion using the Veress needle technique, the surgeon advances the needle through the umbilicus. Aspiration returns free-flowing blood. The patient remains hemodynamically stable. Evaluate the most appropriate next step in management.
A. Insert trocar through the needle tract and inspect for injury
B. Abort procedure and obtain CT angiography
C. Remove needle and proceed with Veress insertion at different site
D. Remove needle, convert to open Hassan technique at umbilicus
E. Remove needle, place Foley catheter, convert to open laparotomy (Correct Answer)
Explanation: ***Remove needle, place Foley catheter, convert to open laparotomy***
- Aspiration of **free-flowing blood** during Veress needle insertion is highly suggestive of a **major vascular injury**, such as the aorta or iliac vessels.
- Even in **hemodynamically stable** patients, immediate **laparotomy** is required to assess for and repair potential life-threatening hemorrhage that laparoscopy cannot safely manage.
*Insert trocar through the needle tract and inspect for injury*
- Inserting a larger **trocar** into a suspected vascular injury can worsen the **laceration** and lead to catastrophic bleeding.
- **Pneumoperitoneum** may temporarily tamponade a major bleed, masking the severity of the injury until it is too late.
*Abort procedure and obtain CT angiography*
- Delaying definitive surgical management for **imaging** is inappropriate when a major vascular or **solid organ injury** is suspected intraoperatively.
- Clinical suspicion and the return of blood through the needle are sufficient indications for **immediate exploration**.
*Remove needle and proceed with Veress insertion at different site*
- Simply moving to a **different site** ignores the high probability of an existing internal injury that requires **immediate repair**.
- Re-attempting insufflation elsewhere can lead to a **tension pneumoperitoneum** or delay the recognition of a retroperitoneal hematoma.
*Remove needle, convert to open Hassan technique at umbilicus*
- The **Hassan technique** is used for establishing laparoscopic access but does not provide sufficient **exposure** to control major vascular bleeding.
- Once major blood vessel injury is suspected, a large **midline laparotomy** is the standard of care to ensure adequate visualization and surgical control.
Question 5: A 42-year-old woman undergoes laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication for GERD refractory to medical therapy. Intraoperatively, the surgeon creates a 360-degree wrap using the gastric fundus around the distal esophagus. Six weeks postoperatively, she presents with severe dysphagia to solids and liquids, inability to belch, and bloating after meals. Analyze the most likely cause.
A. Wrap too tight causing mechanical obstruction (Correct Answer)
B. Achalasia unmasked by the fundoplication
C. Recurrent hiatal hernia with wrap migration
D. Esophageal stricture from reflux injury
E. Delayed gastric emptying from vagal injury
Explanation: ***Wrap too tight causing mechanical obstruction***
- Severe **dysphagia** to both solids and liquids combined with the **gas-bloat syndrome** (inability to belch and post-prandial bloating) indicates a mechanical narrowness of the **Nissen wrap**.
- This is usually a technical error prevented by using a large **intraesophageal bougie** (56-60F) during the creation of the **360-degree fundoplication**.
*Achalasia unmasked by the fundoplication*
- While fundoplication can worsen symptoms of **achalasia**, preoperative **manometry** is standard practice to exclude primary motility disorders before GERD surgery.
- The specific postoperative symptoms of **gas-bloat** are more characteristic of a tight surgical wrap than simple achalasia.
*Recurrent hiatal hernia with wrap migration*
- **Wrap migration** or a "slipped Nissen" typically presents with **recurrent GERD symptoms** or sudden, severe pain and obstructive symptoms if incarcerated.
- While it can cause dysphagia, it is less likely to cause the complete **gas-bloat syndrome** triad seen immediately in the 6-week postoperative window.
*Esophageal stricture from reflux injury*
- **Peptic strictures** occur over months to years of chronic acid exposure and typically improve after successful **fundoplication** stops the reflux.
- The timeline of 6 weeks post-surgery suggests an acute **iatrogenic mechanical cause** rather than a long-standing disease process like a stricture.
*Delayed gastric emptying from vagal injury*
- **Vagal nerve injury** during surgery can cause bloating and **gastroparesis**, but it does not directly explain mechanical **dysphagia** to solids and liquids.
- This condition would lead to delayed transit of gastric contents rather than an anatomical obstruction at the **distal esophagus**.
Question 6: A 70-year-old man with COPD and FEV1 of 45% predicted is diagnosed with a 3 cm peripheral lung nodule in the right lower lobe. PET scan shows high FDR uptake, and biopsy confirms adenocarcinoma. No mediastinal involvement or distant metastases. Analyze the optimal surgical approach.
A. Stereotactic body radiation therapy instead of surgery
B. Open lobectomy via thoracotomy
C. Wedge resection via VATS
D. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) lobectomy (Correct Answer)
E. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by open lobectomy
Explanation: ***Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) lobectomy***
- **VATS lobectomy** is the preferred approach for early-stage **non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)** as it offers oncologic equivalence to open surgery with reduced morbidity.
- In patients with **COPD** and impaired FEV1, a minimally invasive approach is superior because it preserves **respiratory mechanics** and reduces postoperative pain and pulmonary complications.
*Stereotactic body radiation therapy instead of surgery*
- **SBRT** is generally reserved for patients who are medically **inoperable** due to severe comorbidities or extremely poor pulmonary function.
- This patient's FEV1 of 45% often allows for a lobectomy, making **surgical resection** the treatment of choice for a better chance of cure.
*Open lobectomy via thoracotomy*
- While oncologically sound, an **open thoracotomy** involves significant rib-spreading and muscle cutting, leading to higher levels of **postoperative pain**.
- For a patient with **COPD**, the increased risk of **atelectasis** and pneumonia associated with open surgery makes it less favorable than VATS.
*Wedge resection via VATS*
- A **wedge resection** is considered a sub-lobar resection and is associated with a higher risk of **local recurrence** compared to a formal lobectomy.
- It is typically only considered for very small lesions (<2cm) or in patients with extremely limited **pulmonary reserve** who cannot tolerate lobectomy.
*Neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by open lobectomy*
- **Neoadjuvant chemotherapy** is indicated for locally advanced disease (specifically **N2 nodal involvement**) or large tumors, which are not present here.
- This patient has **Stage IA2** disease (3cm, node-negative), where **upfront surgery** is the established standard of care.
Question 7: A 55-year-old obese man with BMI 42 undergoes laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. On postoperative day 2, he develops tachycardia (120 bpm), low-grade fever, and left shoulder pain. His abdomen is soft with mild tenderness. Hemoglobin is stable. Analyze the most likely diagnosis.
A. Pneumonia with pleuritic pain
B. Anastomotic leak at gastrojejunostomy (Correct Answer)
C. Splenic injury from retraction
D. Myocardial infarction with referred pain
E. Pulmonary embolism from immobility
Explanation: ***Anastomotic leak at gastrojejunostomy***
- **Tachycardia** is the most sensitive early indicator of a leak post-bariatric surgery, often appearing before significant abdominal signs.
- **Left shoulder pain** (Kehr’s sign) indicates diaphragmatic irritation from leaking enteric contents or inflammation in the upper abdomen.
*Pneumonia with pleuritic pain*
- While fever and tachycardia can occur, pneumonia usually presents with **productive cough**, hypoxemia, and abnormal **lung auscultation**.
- Pleuritic pain is typically related to respiration rather than being specifically referred to the **left shoulder tip** early post-op.
*Splenic injury from retraction*
- Splenic injury would likely lead to **intraperitoneal bleeding**, characterized by a **drop in hemoglobin** and signs of hemorrhagic shock.
- This patient has a **stable hemoglobin**, making a significant splenic trauma or hematoma less probable.
*Myocardial infarction with referred pain*
- An MI might present with tachycardia and **referred pain**, but it typically involves **chest pressure** or radiation to the jaw/left arm.
- While post-op stress is a risk factor, it would not explain the **low-grade fever** as concisely as an infectious/inflammatory leak.
*Pulmonary embolism from immobility*
- **Pulmonary embolism (PE)** is a major concern in obese post-op patients and presents with sudden onset **tachycardia** and tachypnea.
- However, PE usually presents with **hypoxia** or sudden pleuritic chest pain rather than isolated **left shoulder pain** and fever.
Question 8: A 38-year-old woman undergoes laparoscopic appendectomy for acute appendicitis. During dissection of the mesoappendix, the surgeon inadvertently injures the iliac vessels. Brisk bleeding obscures the field. Apply the immediate next step.
A. Apply direct pressure with laparoscopic instrument and convert to open (Correct Answer)
B. Evacuate pneumoperitoneum and apply manual external pressure
C. Perform laparoscopic suturing of the vessel
D. Apply laparoscopic clips blindly to control bleeding
E. Increase pneumoperitoneum pressure to tamponade bleeding
Explanation: ***Apply direct pressure with laparoscopic instrument and convert to open***
- The priority in a **major vascular injury** (iliac vessels) is to achieve initial **temporary hemostasis** using direct pressure while preparing for a controlled, life-saving **emergency laparotomy**.
- Laparoscopic visualization is often inadequate for repairing high-flow arterial bleeds, thus **immediate conversion** to open surgery is the standard of care to ensure patient safety and definitive repair.
*Evacuate pneumoperitoneum and apply manual external pressure*
- Removing the **pneumoperitoneum** prematurely without internal control can lead to rapid **intraperitoneal exsanguination** as the tamponade effect of the gas pressure is lost.
- **External pressure** is ineffective for deep pelvic or retroperitoneal vessels like the **iliac vessels**, which require internal direct compression.
*Perform laparoscopic suturing of the vessel*
- Attempting **laparoscopic suturing** during brisk bleeding is dangerous due to **poor visibility** and the high risk of further tearing the fragile vessel wall.
- This technique is time-consuming and inappropriate for **emergency vascular control** in a standard laparoscopy setting unless specialized vascular tools and expertise are immediately available.
*Apply laparoscopic clips blindly to control bleeding*
- **Blind application** of clips can worsen the injury or result in permanent damage to adjacent critical structures like the **ureter** or other major nerves.
- Clips are generally insufficient for managing major **high-pressure arterial injuries** and do not provide the security needed for a large iliac vessel tear.
*Increase pneumoperitoneum pressure to tamponade bleeding*
- While slightly increased pressure might provide minimal resistance, it is insufficient to tamponade a **major arterial bleed** and can delay definitive life-saving intervention.
- High insufflation pressures can cause **hemodynamic instability** by reducing venous return and worsening the patient's cardiovascular status during an active hemorrhage.
Question 9: A 62-year-old man undergoes laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair with mesh placement. On postoperative day 3, he develops fever, scrotal swelling, and erythema extending to the inner thigh. CT shows fluid collection in the inguinal region with gas bubbles. Apply the appropriate management.
A. Immediate open surgical exploration and debridement (Correct Answer)
B. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy and IV antibiotics
C. Removal of mesh via laparoscopic approach
D. Broad-spectrum antibiotics and observation
E. Percutaneous drainage of the collection
Explanation: ***Immediate open surgical exploration and debridement***
- The presence of **fever**, **scrotal swelling**, and **erythema** alongside **gas bubbles** on CT indicates a life-threatening **necrotizing soft tissue infection** or deep-seated abscess with gas-forming organisms.
- This is a surgical emergency requiring immediate **open exploration** to perform wide debridement, achieve source control, and facilitate the likely removal of the **infected mesh**.
*Hyperbaric oxygen therapy and IV antibiotics*
- While beneficial for certain **anaerobic infections**, hyperbaric oxygen is only an **adjunctive therapy** and must never delay definitive surgical intervention.
- IV antibiotics alone cannot penetrate **necrotic tissue** or gas-filled collections effectively without mechanical debridement.
*Removal of mesh via laparoscopic approach*
- A **laparoscopic approach** provides inadequate exposure to visualize and debride the **superficial tissues**, scrotum, and inner thigh involved in this clinical scenario.
- Open surgery is preferred to manage **ischaemic or necrotic skin** and fascia that are clearly involved as evidenced by the spreading erythema.
*Broad-spectrum antibiotics and observation*
- **Observation** is contraindicated in the presence of systemic signs and **gas bubbles** on imaging, as the mortality rate for untreated necrotizing infections is extremely high.
- Antibiotics are a necessary support measure but will fail as primary therapy without the removal of the **infected foreign body** (mesh).
*Percutaneous drainage of the collection*
- Percutaneous drainage is insufficient for infections involving **gas-forming organisms** or when a **prosthetic mesh** is the likely source of the nidus.
- It does not allow for the necessary **surgical debridement** of devitalized tissues that are fueling the inflammatory response.
Question 10: A 45-year-old woman with symptomatic gallstones is scheduled for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. During trocar insertion, the surgeon notices sudden loss of visualization and distension. The patient becomes hypotensive with subcutaneous emphysema noted on the abdomen. End-tidal CO2 is rising. Apply the immediate management steps.
A. Desufflate abdomen, hyperventilate patient, and reassess (Correct Answer)
B. Place additional trocars for better visualization
C. Continue procedure with lower insufflation pressure
D. Increase pneumoperitoneum pressure to improve visualization
E. Convert to open cholecystectomy immediately
Explanation: ***Desufflate abdomen, hyperventilate patient, and reassess***
- The patient is likely experiencing **CO2 embolism** or severe **extraperitoneal insufflation**, indicated by hypotension, **subcutaneous emphysema**, and rising **end-tidal CO2**.
- Replacing the gas source by **desufflation** and aiding gas elimination through **hyperventilation** are the critical first steps to stabilize the patient's hemodynamic and respiratory status.
*Place additional trocars for better visualization*
- Adding more trocars ignores the life-threatening **hemodynamic instability** and could potentially worsen the **subcutaneous emphysema**.
- Surgical visualization is secondary to stabilizing the patient's **airway, breathing, and circulation** in this emergency.
*Continue procedure with lower insufflation pressure*
- Continuing the procedure is dangerous because any remaining **pneumoperitoneum** can exacerbate the **venous CO2 absorption** or gas embolism.
- Immediate cessation of insufflation is required until the cause of the **hypotension** and rising **EtCO2** is identified and treated.
*Increase pneumoperitoneum pressure to improve visualization*
- Increasing pressure is contraindicated as it facilitates faster **CO2 absorption** into the systemic circulation, worsening the **embolism** or emphysema.
- High pressures further decrease **venous return** and cardiac output, which can lead to cardiovascular collapse in an already **hypotensive** patient.
*Convert to open cholecystectomy immediately*
- While conversion may eventually be necessary, the immediate priority is **cardiopulmonary resuscitation** and managing the **gas-related emergency**.
- Performing a laparotomy on a cardiovascularly unstable patient without first resolving the **CO2-induced physiology** increases surgical morbidity.
