A 57-year-old man is brought to the emergency department by his family because of several episodes of vomiting of blood in the past 24 hours. He has a history of alcoholic cirrhosis and is being treated for ascites with diuretics and for encephalopathy with lactulose. His vital signs include a temperature of 36.9°C (98.4°F), pulse of 85/min, and blood pressure of 80/52 mm Hg. On examination, he is confused and unable to give a complete history. He is noted to have jaundice, splenomegaly, and multiple spider angiomas over his chest. Which of the following is the best initial management of this patient?

Combined vasoactive and endoscopic therapy

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS)

A 49-year-old woman with a history of hepatitis C cirrhosis complicated by esophageal varices, ascites, and hepatic encephalopathy presents with 1 week of increasing abdominal discomfort. Currently, she takes lactulose, rifaximin, furosemide, and spironolactone. On physical examination, she has mild asterixis, generalized jaundice, and a distended abdomen with positive fluid wave. Diagnostic paracentesis yields a WBC count of 1196/uL with 85% neutrophils. Which of the following is the most appropriate treatment?

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt placement

Large volume paracentesis with albumin

Increased furosemide and spironolactone

A 54-year-old man with alcoholism comes to the emergency department because of vomiting blood for 6 hours. He has had 3–4 episodes in which he has vomited dark red blood during this period. He has had no epigastric pain or tarry stools. On arrival, his temperature is 37.3°C (99.1°F), pulse is 134/min, and blood pressure is 80/50 mm Hg. He is resuscitated with 0.9% saline and undergoes an emergency upper endoscopy, which shows actively bleeding varices. Band ligation of the varices is done and hemostasis is achieved. He is diagnosed with Child class B cirrhosis. He is concerned about the possibility of recurrence of such an episode. He is asked to abstain from alcohol, to which he readily agrees. In addition to non-selective beta-blocker therapy, which of the following is the most appropriate recommendation to prevent future morbidity and mortality from this condition?

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt

A 60-year-old man is rushed to the emergency room after he was found unconscious in bed that afternoon. The patient’s wife says he has been confused and irritable for the past several days. She says he has a history of chronic daily alcohol abuse and has been hospitalized multiple times with similar symptoms His temperature is 37°C (98.6°F), the blood pressure is 110/80 mm Hg, the pulse is 90/min, and the respiratory rate is 14/min. On physical examination, the patient is minimally responsive to painful stimuli. His abdomen is distended with positive shifting dullness. Laboratory results are as follows: Complete blood count Hematocrit 35% Platelets 100,000/mm3 White blood cells 5000/mm3 Liver function studies Serum Albumin 2 g/dL Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) 200 IU/L Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) 106 IU/L Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) 56 IU/L The patient is admitted to the hospital and started on the appropriate treatment to improve his mental status. Which of the following best describes the mechanism of action of the drug that is most likely used to treat this patient’s symptoms?

Decreases pH in the gastrointestinal lumen

Prevents the conversion of ammonia into ammonium

Increases ammonia production and absorption

Increases pH in the gastrointestinal lumen

Decreases the colonic concentration of bacteria

A 38-year-old woman comes to the physician because of a 3-month history of moderate abdominal pain that is unresponsive to medication. She has a history of two spontaneous abortions at 11 and 12 weeks' gestation. Ultrasound examination of the abdomen shows normal liver parenchyma, a dilated portal vein, and splenic enlargement. Upper endoscopy shows dilated submucosal veins in the lower esophagus. Further evaluation of this patient is most likely to show which of the following findings?

Increased serum bilirubin levels

A 59-year-old man presents to the emergency department with a sudden onset of severe pain (10/10 in severity) between the shoulder blades. He describes the pain as tearing in nature. Medical history is positive for essential hypertension for 11 years. The patient has smoked 10–15 cigarettes daily for the past 30 years. His temperature is 36.6°C (97.8°F), the heart rate is 107/min, and the blood pressure is 179/86 mm Hg in the right arm and 157/72 mm Hg in the left arm. CT scan of the chest shows an intimal flap limited to the descending thoracic aorta. Which of the following best describes the most likely predisposing factor for this condition?

Abnormal elastic properties of the aorta

Portal hypertension complications for USMLE Step 2 CK: High-Yield Internal Medicine Lessons

Portal Hypertension - The Pressure Cooker

Pathophysiology: Results from ↑ resistance to portal blood flow (primarily intra-hepatic) and ↑ splanchnic circulation, leading to a back-up of pressure.
Etiologies:
- Pre-hepatic: Portal/splenic vein thrombosis.
- Intra-hepatic: Cirrhosis, schistosomiasis, sarcoidosis.
- Post-hepatic: Budd-Chiari syndrome, right heart failure.
Measurement: Hepatic Venous Pressure Gradient (HVPG).
- $HVPG = \text{Wedged Hepatic Vein Pressure} - \text{Free Hepatic Vein Pressure}$
- Thresholds: Varices develop at >10 mmHg; bleeding risk at >12 mmHg.

⭐ The most common cause of portal hypertension in the Western world is cirrhosis.

Causes of Portal Hypertension: Pre-, Intra-, Post-hepatic

Variceal Hemorrhage - Leaky Volcanoes

Endoscopic views of esophageal varices and active bleeding

⭐ All patients with newly diagnosed cirrhosis require an upper endoscopy (EGD) to screen for esophageal varices.

Primary Prophylaxis: For medium-to-large varices, prevent the first bleed using non-selective β-blockers (NSBB) like propranolol, or via Endoscopic Variceal Ligation (EVL).
Acute Bleed Management: A medical emergency. Transfuse for Hb <7 g/dL.

Secondary Prophylaxis: To prevent re-bleeding, combine NSBB with serial EVL. A Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt (TIPS) is considered for refractory cases.

Ascites & SBP - Leaky Pipes, Bad Bugs

Pathophysiology: Splanchnic vasodilation & RAAS activation → Na⁺/H₂O retention.
Diagnosis: Paracentesis is key. Calculate Serum-Ascites Albumin Gradient.
- $SAAG = Serum Albumin - Ascites Albumin$. A value >1.1 g/dL suggests portal hypertension.

⭐ A SAAG > 1.1 g/dL is 97% accurate for diagnosing ascites due to portal hypertension.

Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis (SBP): Infection of ascitic fluid.
- Diagnosis: Ascitic fluid PMNs >250/mm³.
- Organisms: E. coli, Klebsiella, Pneumococci.
- Treatment: 3rd-generation cephalosporins (e.g., ceftriaxone).

Hepatic Encephalopathy - Brain Fog Central

Pathophysiology: ↑ Ammonia ($NH_3$) neurotoxicity from impaired hepatic clearance.
Symptoms & Staging:
- Early: Altered sleep, ↓ attention.
- Late: Confusion, lethargy, coma.
- Asterixis: Classic flapping tremor.
- Staged by West Haven Criteria.
Precipitants:
- 📌 HE-PRECIPITANTS: Hemorrhage, Electrolytes, Protein, Renal failure, ETOH, Constipation, Infection, Portosystemic shunt.
Treatment:
- Lactulose: ↓ $NH_3$ production/absorption.
- Rifaximin: ↓ $NH_3$-producing bacteria.

⭐ The first step in managing hepatic encephalopathy is to identify and correct the precipitating factor(s).

Hepatorenal Syndrome - Kidney Shutdown

Pathophysiology: Splanchnic vasodilation from portal hypertension → ↓ systemic resistance → RAAS activation → severe renal vasoconstriction → ↓ GFR.

Diagnosis & Types: A diagnosis of exclusion (no shock, nephrotoxins, or intrinsic kidney disease).
- Type 1: Rapid, severe (Creatinine >2.5 mg/dL in <2 wks).
- Type 2: Insidious onset with refractory ascites.
Treatment: Bridge to transplant with Albumin, Midodrine, and Octreotide. Definitive treatment is liver transplantation.

⭐ Hepatorenal syndrome is a functional renal failure; kidneys are histologically normal and can recover function after liver transplantation.

High‑Yield Points - ⚡ Biggest Takeaways

Esophageal varices are the most lethal complication; use non-selective beta-blockers (nadolol, propranolol) for primary prophylaxis.

Ascites stems from splanchnic vasodilation and RAAS activation; manage with spironolactone and furosemide.

Suspect SBP with fever/pain; diagnose with ascitic fluid PMNs > 250 cells/mm³ and treat with third-gen cephalosporins.

Hepatic encephalopathy presents with asterixis from ↑ ammonia; treat with lactulose and rifaximin.

A serum-ascites albumin gradient (SAAG) ≥ 1.1 g/dL confirms portal hypertension-related ascites.

Hepatorenal syndrome is acute renal failure; treat with albumin, octreotide, and midodrine.

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