A 47-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with abdominal pain. The patient states that she felt this pain come on during dinner last night. Since then, she has felt bloated, constipated, and has been vomiting. Her current medications include metformin, insulin, levothyroxine, and ibuprofen. Her temperature is 99.0°F (37.2°C), blood pressure is 139/79 mmHg, pulse is 95/min, respirations are 12/min, and oxygen saturation is 98% on room air. On physical exam, the patient appears uncomfortable. Abdominal exam is notable for hypoactive bowel sounds, abdominal distension, and diffuse tenderness in all four quadrants. Cardiac and pulmonary exams are within normal limits. Which of the following is the best next step in management?

Nasogastric tube, NPO, and IV fluids

A 32-year-old man is brought to the emergency department after a skiing accident. The patient had been skiing down the mountain when he collided with another skier who had stopped suddenly in front of him. He is alert but complaining of pain in his chest and abdomen. He has a past medical history of intravenous drug use and peptic ulcer disease. He is a current smoker. His temperature is 97.4°F (36.3°C), blood pressure is 77/53 mmHg, pulse is 127/min, and respirations are 13/min. He has a GCS of 15 and bilateral shallow breath sounds. His abdomen is soft and distended with bruising over the epigastrium. He is moving all four extremities and has scattered lacerations on his face. His skin is cool and delayed capillary refill is present. Two large-bore IVs are placed in his antecubital fossa, and he is given 2L of normal saline. His FAST exam reveals fluid in Morison's pouch. Following the 2L normal saline, his temperature is 97.5°F (36.4°C), blood pressure is 97/62 mmHg, pulse is 115/min, and respirations are 12/min. Which of the following is the best next step in management?

Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy

A 28-year-old male presents to his primary care physician with complaints of intermittent abdominal pain and alternating bouts of constipation and diarrhea. His medical chart is not significant for any past medical problems or prior surgeries. He is not prescribed any current medications. Which of the following questions would be the most useful next question in eliciting further history from this patient?

"Can you tell me more about the symptoms you have been experiencing?"

"Does the diarrhea typically precede the constipation, or vice-versa?"

"Is the diarrhea foul-smelling?"

"Please rate your abdominal pain on a scale of 1-10, with 10 being the worst pain of your life"

"Are the symptoms worse in the morning or at night?"

A 16-month-old male patient, with no significant past medical history, is brought into the emergency department for the second time in 5 days with tachypnea, expiratory wheezes and hypoxia. The patient presented to the emergency department initially due to rhinorrhea, fever and cough. He was treated with nasal suctioning and discharged home. The mother states that, over the past 5 days, the patient has started breathing faster with chest retractions. His vital signs are significant for a temperature of 100.7 F, respiratory rate of 45 and oxygen saturation of 90%. What is the most appropriate treatment for this patient?

Nasal suctioning, oxygen therapy and IV fluids

Albuterol, ipratropium and IV methylprednisolone

IV cefotaxime and IV vancomycin

Humidified oxygen, racemic epinephrine and intravenous (IV) dexamethasone

A 3500-g (7.7-lbs) girl is delivered at 39 weeks' gestation to a 27-year-old woman, gravida 2, para 1. Apgar scores are 8 and 9 at 1 and 5 minutes, respectively. The mother had regular prenatal visits throughout the pregnancy. She did not smoke or drink alcohol. She took multivitamins as prescribed by her physician. The newborn appears active. The girl's temperature is 37°C (98.6°F), pulse is 120/min, and blood pressure is 55/35 mm Hg. Examination in the delivery room shows clitoromegaly. One day later, laboratory studies show: Hemoglobin 12.8 g/dL Leukocyte count 6,000/mm3 Platelet count 240,000/mm3 Serum Na+ 133 mEq/L K+ 5.2 mEq/L Cl− 101 mEq/L HCO3− 21 mEq/L Urea nitrogen 15 mg/dL Creatinine 0.8 mg/dL Ultrasound of the abdomen and pelvis shows normal uterus and normal ovaries. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in the management of this newborn patient?

Hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone therapy

A 4-week-old male presents with his parents to the pediatrician for a well-child visit. The patient’s mother reports that the patient was eating well until about one week ago, when he began vomiting after breastfeeding. His mother has tried increasing the frequency of feeds and decreasing the amount of each feed, but the vomiting seems to be getting worse. The patient now vomits after every feed. His mother states the vomitus looks like breastmilk. The patient’s mother is exclusively breastfeeding and would prefer not to switch to formula but worries that the patient is not getting the nutrition he needs. Two weeks ago, the patient was in the 75th percentile for weight and 70th for height. He is now in the 60th percentile for weight and 68th percentile for height. On physical exam, the patient has dry mucous membranes. His abdomen is soft and non-distended. Which of the following is the best next step in management?

Trial of empiric proton pump inhibitor

Supplement breastfeeding with formula

An 18-month-old boy is brought to the physician by his parents for the evaluation of passing large amounts of dark red blood from his rectum for 2 days. His parents noticed that he has also had several episodes of dark stools over the past 3 weeks. The parents report that their child has been sleeping more and has been more pale than usual over the past 24 hours. The boy's appetite has been normal and he has not vomited. He is at the 50th percentile for height and 50th percentile for weight. His temperature is 37°C (98.6°F), pulse is 135/min, respirations are 38/min, and blood pressure is 90/50 mm Hg. Examination shows pale conjunctivae. The abdomen is soft and nontender. There is a small amount of dark red blood in the diaper. Laboratory studies show: Hemoglobin 9.5 g/dL Hematocrit 30% Mean corpuscular volume 68 μm3 Leukocyte count 7,200/mm3 Platelet count 300,000/mm3 Which of the following is most likely to confirm the diagnosis?

Technetium-99m pertechnetate scan

Vitamin K supplementation is given to neonates to prevent _____ .

Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn

Necrotizing enterocolitis: High-Yield Pediatrics Lessons

Pathophysiology - Guts Under Siege

Pathophysiology of Necrotizing Enterocolitis

NEC is multifactorial, rooted in a triad of insults targeting the vulnerable premature intestine:

Intestinal Ischemia: Reduced blood flow from events like perinatal asphyxia or shock compromises mucosal integrity.
Enteral Feeding: Particularly formula, provides a substrate for pathogenic bacteria to proliferate.
Bacterial Translocation: An immature gut barrier and abnormal colonization allow bacteria to invade the bowel wall.

This combination unleashes an uncontrolled inflammatory cascade (↑ PAF, TNF-α), leading to coagulative necrosis and potential perforation.

⭐ High-Yield: The terminal ileum and proximal ascending colon are the most commonly affected sites.

Risk Factors & Prevention - Hedging the Bets

Major Risk Factors:
- Prematurity & VLBW/ELBW (single biggest risk)
- Formula feeding (vs. human milk)
- Birth asphyxia & shock
- Congenital heart disease (esp. PDA)
- Umbilical catheterization
Protective Measures:
- Antenatal steroids
- Exclusive human milk diet
- Probiotics (e.g., Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium)

⭐ An exclusive human milk diet is the single most effective preventive measure, reducing NEC risk by over 50%.

Clinical Features & Labs - The Telltale Signs

Systemic Signs: Often subtle and non-specific. Includes lethargy, apnea, bradycardia, and temperature instability.
Gastrointestinal (GI) Signs: More specific indicators.
- Feeding intolerance (vomiting, increased gastric residuals).
- Abdominal distension and tenderness.
- Hematochezia (bright red blood in stools).
Lab Findings: Key markers of inflammation and metabolic derangement.
- Metabolic acidosis
- Thrombocytopenia (platelets < 100,000/mm³)
- Hyponatremia
- Elevated C-Reactive Protein (CRP)

⭐ Abdominal distension is the most common and often the earliest clinical sign of NEC.

Imaging & Staging - X-Ray Clues

Abdominal X-ray is the primary imaging modality for diagnosis and staging, based on Modified Bell's criteria.

Abdominal X-rays of Necrotizing Enterocolitis

Stage	Classification	Key X-Ray Findings
I	Suspected NEC	Normal or mild, non-specific ileus.
II	Proven NEC	Pneumatosis intestinalis (hallmark); portal venous gas. > ⭐ Pneumatosis intestinalis (gas in the bowel wall) is the pathognomonic radiological sign for NEC.
III	Advanced NEC	Pneumoperitoneum (indicates perforation).

Pneumoperitoneum is a surgical emergency.

Management - The Action Plan

Medical Management: Initiate supportive care immediately.
- NPO (Nil Per Os), IV fluids, and nasogastric decompression.
- Broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., Ampicillin + Gentamicin + Metronidazole).
- Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN) for nutritional support.
Surgical Management:

⭐ Pneumoperitoneum on an abdominal X-ray is an absolute indication for immediate surgical intervention.

High‑Yield Points - ⚡ Biggest Takeaways

Most common gastrointestinal emergency in neonates, primarily affecting preterm infants.

Pneumatosis intestinalis (gas in the bowel wall) is the pathognomonic sign on abdominal X-ray.

Bell's staging is crucial for classifying severity and guiding management.

Management cornerstone is bowel rest (NPO), broad-spectrum antibiotics, and supportive care.

Pneumoperitoneum indicates bowel perforation, an absolute indication for surgery.

The terminal ileum and proximal colon are the most commonly affected sites.

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