Types of Disasters

Disaster Definitions - Setting the Scene

Disaster: A sudden, calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, or destruction, overwhelming local capacity.

⭐ WHO: "A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources." 💡 Modern definitions from UNDRR and national disaster management authorities may have slight variations in terminology, emphasizing evolving international frameworks.
Mass Casualty Incident (MCI): Event where medical needs exceed available resources. Defined by resource imbalance rather than fixed numbers; capacity-dependent on available infrastructure.
Hazard: Agent or phenomenon with potential to cause harm/damage.
Vulnerability: Conditions increasing susceptibility to a hazard's impact.
Risk: Probability of harmful consequences. $Risk = Hazard \times Vulnerability$.

Types of Disasters:

Basis	Classification	Examples
Cause	Natural	Earthquake, Flood, Epidemic
	Man-made	Industrial, CBRN, Transport
Onset	Sudden	Earthquake, Explosion
	Slow	Drought, Famine

Nature's Fury - Unpredictable Perils

Natural disasters are adverse events from natural hazards, causing widespread losses exceeding community coping capacity. Classified by origin. 📌 Mnemonic: "George Has Many Cute Bunnies" (Geophysical, Hydrological, Meteorological, Climatological, Biological).

Disaster Type	Key Examples & Characteristics (India Focus)
Geophysical	Earthquakes (e.g., Himalayan belt, Gujarat; Richter scale >M7 (major)), Tsunamis (e.g., 2004 Indian Ocean), Landslides (Himalayas, Western Ghats).
Hydrological	Riverine Floods (e.g., Kosi, Brahmaputra plains), Flash floods (e.g., Uttarakhand 2013), Coastal storm surges.
Meteorological	Tropical Cyclones (e.g., Bay of Bengal & Arabian Sea coasts like Odisha, Andhra Pradesh; IMD scale, Saffir-Simpson for global context), Storms, Hailstorms.
Climatological	Heatwaves (e.g., North & Central Indian plains, often exceeding 40°C), Cold waves (Northern India), Droughts (affecting agriculture).
Biological	Epidemics/Pandemics (e.g., Nipah virus, Dengue, Chikungunya, COVID-19), Pest infestations (e.g., locust swarms). Classification follows DSM-5-TR and ICD-11 diagnostic frameworks for psychological impacts.
%%{init: {'flowchart': {'htmlLabels': true}}}%%
flowchart TD

ID1["🔍 Identification A
• Keyword string 1• n=3944 records"] ID2["🔍 Identification B
• Keyword string 2• n=621 records"]

S1["📋 1st Screening
• Records screened• n=4565 total"] E1["❌ Step 1 Excluded
• Records excluded• n=2657 total"]

S2["📋 2nd Screening
• Records screened• n=2657 total"] E2["❌ Step 2 Removal
• Duplicate records• n=78 removed"]

EL["📏 Eligibility
• Full-text assess• n=2579 total"] E3["✅ Step 3 Included
• Title and abstract• n=2477 total"]

EX["⚠️ Step 4 Excluded
• Specific reasons• n=102 total"] FIN["📊 Final Synthesis
• Studies included• n=82 final"]

ID1 & ID2 --> S1 S1 -->|e1, e3, i3-i7| E1 E1 --> S2 S2 --> E2 E2 --> EL EL --> E3 E3 -->|i1, i2| EX EX -->|e2| FIN

style ID1 fill:#EEFAFF, stroke:#DAF3FF, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#0369A1 style ID2 fill:#EEFAFF, stroke:#DAF3FF, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#0369A1 style S1 fill:#FEF8EC, stroke:#FBECCA, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#854D0E style E1 fill:#FDF4F3, stroke:#FCE6E4, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#B91C1C style S2 fill:#FEF8EC, stroke:#FBECCA, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#854D0E style E2 fill:#FDF4F3, stroke:#FCE6E4, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#B91C1C style EL fill:#FFF7ED, stroke:#FFEED5, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#C2410C style E3 fill:#F1FCF5, stroke:#BEF4D8, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#166534 style EX fill:#FDF4F3, stroke:#FCE6E4, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#B91C1C style FIN fill:#F6F5F5, stroke:#E7E6E6, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#525252


> ⭐ Floods are the most frequent natural disaster in India, accounting for approximately 50% of all natural disasters and causing significant damage and loss of life annually.

```mermaid
%%{init: {'flowchart': {'htmlLabels': true}}}%%
flowchart TD

Start["<b>🚨 Mass Disaster</b><br><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Large scale event</span><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Emergency response</span>"]

Victim["<b>🔍 Victim ID</b><br><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Identification</span><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Recovery process</span>"]

BNS174["<b>⚖️ BNS Sec. 174</b><br><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Unnatural death</span><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Investigation start</span>"]

BNSS183["<b>📋 BNSS Sec. 183</b><br><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Inquest procedure</span><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Legal inquiry</span>"]

BSA["<b>🧪 BSA Evidence</b><br><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Data collection</span><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Forensic samples</span>"]

Report["<b>🗒️ Forensic Report</b><br><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Final examination</span><span style='display:block; text-align:left; color:#555'>• Official findings</span>"]

Start --> Victim
Victim --> BNS174
BNS174 --> BNSS183
BNSS183 --> BSA
BSA --> Report

style Start fill:#FDF4F3, stroke:#FCE6E4, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#B91C1C
style Victim fill:#FEF8EC, stroke:#FBECCA, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#854D0E
style BNS174 fill:#F7F5FD, stroke:#F0EDFA, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#6B21A8
style BNSS183 fill:#F7F5FD, stroke:#F0EDFA, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#6B21A8
style BSA fill:#FFF7ED, stroke:#FFEED5, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#C2410C
style Report fill:#F6F5F5, stroke:#E7E6E6, stroke-width:1.5px, rx:12, ry:12, color:#525252

Human Hand - Preventable Catastrophes

Also termed Man-Made Disasters, these result from human error, negligence, or intent. They are broadly classifiable based on their origin.

Key types with forensic significance:

Type	Description & Forensic Relevance	Indian Examples
Industrial Accidents	Toxic release (e.g., $CH_3NCO$), explosions, fires. World's worst industrial disaster with ongoing health and legal ramifications.	Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984 - ongoing impact), Vizag Styrene leak (2020), Delhi factory fires (2019)
Transport Accidents	High velocity trauma, victim ID (DVI), mechanical failure analysis.	Balasore train accident Odisha (2023), Gaisal (1999), Mangalore air crash (2010)
CBRN Terrorism	Use of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear agents. Evolving dual-use technology threats requiring international collaboration.	📌 CBRN: Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear. (Enhanced preparedness & intelligence sharing)
Major Fires	Burns, smoke inhalation, structural collapse. Advanced arson investigation techniques.	Delhi factory fire (2019), Uphaar Cinema Fire (1997), AMRI Hospital Fire (2011)
Nuclear Accidents	Radiation exposure, contamination. Long-term health surveillance post-exposure (ref: Fukushima, Chernobyl).	(Focus on national preparedness, NDRF & BARC protocols, radiation dose reconstruction)

⭐ Key forensic indicators in a suspected CBRN event include: unusual clusters of specific symptoms (e.g., miosis, seizures for nerve agents), unexplained animal deaths, presence of dissemination devices, and atypical odors or residues. Rapid agent identification is crucial for medical countermeasures and investigation under BNSS procedures.

High‑Yield Points - ⚡ Biggest Takeaways

Natural disasters: Broadly geophysical (earthquakes, tsunamis), hydrological (floods), meteorological (cyclones), and biological (epidemics).

Man-made disasters: Either intentional (terrorism, war) or unintentional (industrial accidents, transport incidents, stampedes).

Technological disasters: A key sub-category of man-made, including NRCE (Nuclear, Radiological, Chemical, Explosive) events.

Complex emergencies: Characterized by multiple, often interlinked, causes like conflict, famine, and displacement.

Sudden-onset disasters: Earthquakes, floods, cyclones; require rapid response.

Slow-onset disasters: Droughts, famines; allow for more preparatory time.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs

Practice Indian Medical PG questions for Types of Disasters. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 1: Which of the following phases are directly involved in the recovery phase of the disaster cycle?

A. Response and Rehabilitation
B. Mitigation and Rehabilitation
C. Response and Preparedness
D. Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (Correct Answer)

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***Rehabilitation and Reconstruction*** - **Rehabilitation** is the short-term recovery phase focusing on restoring essential services, providing temporary shelter, medical care, and supporting affected populations to resume normal activities. - **Reconstruction** is the long-term recovery phase involving rebuilding damaged infrastructure, permanent housing, economic restoration, and development improvements. - These two phases together constitute the **recovery phase** of the disaster cycle according to standard disaster management frameworks (WHO, NDMA). *Mitigation and Rehabilitation* - While **rehabilitation** is correctly part of recovery, **mitigation** is traditionally considered a separate continuous phase or part of preparedness, focused on reducing future disaster risks. - **Mitigation** measures are implemented throughout the disaster cycle, not specifically as a direct component of the recovery phase. *Response and Rehabilitation* - **Response** refers to immediate life-saving actions during and immediately after a disaster (search and rescue, emergency medical care, evacuation). - **Response** precedes the recovery phase and is distinct from it, though **rehabilitation** is indeed part of recovery. *Response and Preparedness* - **Preparedness** involves planning, training, and resource allocation before a disaster occurs. - **Response** is the immediate action during/after the disaster. - Neither constitutes the recovery phase, which follows after the immediate response is complete.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 2: What is the primary purpose of the World Health Organization's International Health Regulations?

A. To establish global health standards
B. To coordinate international health responses
C. To prevent the spread of diseases across borders (Correct Answer)
D. To provide financial aid to countries in need

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***To prevent the spread of diseases across borders*** - The **International Health Regulations (IHR)** are a legally binding international instrument designed to help countries work together to prevent and respond to **acute public health risks** that have the potential to spread globally. - Their core purpose is to prevent, protect against, control, and provide a public health response to the **international spread of disease** in ways that are commensurate with and restricted to public health risks, and which avoid unnecessary interference with international traffic and trade. *To establish global health standards* - While the IHR contribute to global health safety, their primary focus is on **risk management and response** rather than setting broad global health standards. - Other WHO initiatives and agreements are more specifically dedicated to establishing **global norms and standards** for health systems and services. *To coordinate international health responses* - The IHR provide a framework for coordination, but their fundamental purpose is to enable countries to **detect, assess, notify, and respond** to public health events of international concern. - Coordination is a means to achieve the goal of preventing international spread, rather than the primary goal itself. *To provide financial aid to countries in need* - The IHR do not involve the direct provision of **financial aid**; their scope is limited to public health measures and reporting. - Financial assistance for health initiatives typically falls under the purview of other **international development organizations** or specific funding mechanisms.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 3: What is the investigation of choice for blunt abdominal trauma in an unstable patient?

A. X-ray abdomen
B. MRI
C. USG (Correct Answer)
D. Diagnostic Peritoneal Lavage (DPL)

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***USG (FAST Exam)*** - In an **unstable patient** with blunt abdominal trauma, **Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) exam** is the investigation of choice. - It is **rapid, non-invasive, and bedside**, allowing immediate detection of **free fluid** (blood) in the peritoneal cavity, pericardium, and pleural spaces without transporting the patient. - Guides immediate decision for **laparotomy** in hemodynamically unstable patients. - **Note:** In **stable patients**, **CT abdomen** is the gold standard as it provides detailed anatomical information, but it requires patient transport and time. *X-ray abdomen* - Provides limited information in blunt trauma, primarily showing **free air** (bowel perforation) or **bony fractures**. - **Not sensitive** for detecting intraperitoneal bleeding, which is the primary concern in unstable patients. *MRI* - Offers excellent soft tissue detail but is **time-consuming** and requires the patient to be **hemodynamically stable**. - **Impractical** for unstable trauma patients requiring rapid assessment and intervention. *Diagnostic Peritoneal Lavage (DPL)* - An **invasive procedure** that is sensitive for detecting intra-abdominal hemorrhage. - Has largely been **replaced by FAST exam** in most trauma centers due to FAST being non-invasive, rapid, and repeatable. - DPL has a **higher false-positive rate** and cannot identify the source of bleeding.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 4: A 32-year-old male is brought for autopsy after being found on a railway track, suspected of suicide. Examination reveals joule burns on the fingers and multiple lacerated wounds on the body, with edges that do not gape and are closely approximated, and no positive vital reaction zone is present. Based on the autopsy findings, what is the most likely manner of death in this case?

A. Accidental (Correct Answer)
B. Natural
C. Homicidal
D. Suicidal

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***Accidental*** - The presence of **joule burns** on the fingers indicates **electrocution** from contact with an electrified railway line, which is the **cause of death**. - **Multiple lacerated wounds** with non-gaping edges and **absence of vital reaction zone** confirm these injuries were sustained **post-mortem** after the train struck the already deceased body. - **Key forensic principle**: Joule burns alone **cannot determine intent** - they only indicate electrical contact occurred. Railway electrocutions are **frequently accidental**, especially when individuals cross tracks unaware of live rails or overhead wires. - Without additional evidence of suicidal intent (suicide note, witness statements, deliberate positioning, psychiatric history), the **autopsy findings alone** are most consistent with **accidental electrocution** followed by post-mortem train impact. - The question asks for determination based on "autopsy findings" - physical evidence alone typically suggests accidental manner in railway electrocutions unless other contextual evidence proves otherwise. *Suicidal* - While the scenario mentions the person was "suspected of suicide," **autopsy findings cannot definitively prove suicidal intent** without corroborating evidence. - Joule burns on fingers are seen in both accidental and suicidal electrocutions and cannot distinguish between the two. - Suicide determination requires additional evidence beyond the physical autopsy findings described (e.g., positioning suggesting deliberate contact, farewell notes, witness accounts of deliberate action). *Homicidal* - Homicide would require evidence of **coercion**, restraint marks, defensive injuries, or signs of struggle, none of which are described. - Electrical homicide is rare and would typically show evidence of the victim being forcibly held against an electrical source. - The finger location of joule burns suggests **voluntary hand contact**, not forcible application by another person. *Natural* - Natural death refers to death from disease or internal pathology without external intervention. - The presence of **joule burns** (electrocution injury) and **traumatic lacerated wounds** clearly indicates an **unnatural cause of death** involving external factors.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 5: Patients who need surgery within 24 hours are categorized under which color category in a disaster management triage?

A. Green
B. Yellow (Correct Answer)
C. Blue
D. Black

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***Yellow*** - Patients in the **yellow category** are those who require **significant medical attention** and intervention, such as surgery, but whose condition is stable enough to withstand a delay of a few hours up to 24 hours without immediate threat to life or limb. - This category indicates a **delayed but urgent need** for treatment, distinguishing them from immediate (red) or minor (green) cases. *Blue* - The color **blue** is generally **not a standard triage category** in most commonly used disaster protocols (e.g., START, JumpSTART). - Triage systems typically use red, yellow, green, and black to prioritize patients based on immediate medical need and prognosis. *Green* - The **green category** is for patients with **minor injuries** who are considered "walking wounded" and can often wait for treatment for several hours, sometimes up to a few days. - These individuals are **stable** and do not require immediate intervention to preserve life or limb. *Black* - The **black category** is reserved for individuals who are **deceased** or have injuries so severe that survival is unlikely given the available resources, often implying **palliative care** rather than active life-saving interventions in a mass casualty event. - This category signifies that resources would be better allocated to patients with a higher chance of survival.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 6: Ambulatory patients after a disaster are categorized into what color of triage?

A. Red
B. Yellow
C. Green (Correct Answer)
D. Black

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***Green*** - **Green tag** is for the walking wounded, meaning those with minor injuries who can move independently and do not require immediate medical attention. - These patients can often assist with **their own care** or aid others, and their treatment can be delayed. *Red* - **Red tag** patients have critical, life-threatening injuries that require immediate intervention to save life or limb. - This category includes conditions like **severe bleeding**, shock, or airway compromise. *Yellow* - **Yellow tag** is assigned to patients with serious injuries that are not immediately life-threatening but require definitive treatment within a few hours. - Examples include **stable fractures**, moderate burns, or significant but controlled bleeding. *Black* - **Black tag** indicates patients who are deceased or have injuries so severe that survival is unlikely even with maximal medical care. - Resources are diverted from these patients to those with a higher chance of survival, to **maximize overall saved lives**.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 7: Most common reported disease in post disaster period:

A. Pneumonia
B. Acute gastroenteritis (Correct Answer)
C. Leptospirosis
D. Malnutrition

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***Acute gastroenteritis*** - **Disruptions to sanitation systems**, availability of safe drinking water, and food handling practices commonly occur after disasters, creating ideal conditions for the spread of **enteric pathogens**. - Overcrowding in temporary shelters and limited access to hygiene facilities further contribute to the rapid transmission of **gastrointestinal infections**. *Pneumonia* - While respiratory infections can increase in post-disaster settings due to overcrowding and weakened immune systems, **pneumonia** is not typically the *most common* reported disease overall. - The primary drivers of **pneumonia** outbreaks, such as close contact and respiratory droplet transmission, are often secondary to widespread contamination issues. *Leptospirosis* - **Leptospirosis** is associated with exposure to floodwaters contaminated with animal urine and can increase after certain types of disasters, primarily **floods**. - However, it is not consistently the *most common* disease across all types of post-disaster scenarios compared to the broad prevalence of gastrointestinal issues. *Malnutrition* - **Malnutrition** is a significant long-term consequence of disasters, particularly when food supply chains are disrupted and access to adequate nutrition is limited over extended periods. - It is a chronic concern that develops over time, rather than an immediately *most commonly reported disease* in the acute post-disaster phase.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 8: Following a major earthquake, a regional hospital manages both survivors and victim identification. The forensic team faces: limited DNA lab capacity (30 samples/week), 200 bodies, pressure from families for quick release, and presence of closed casket bodies (intact) versus open/fragmented remains. As the coordinating forensic expert, evaluate and prioritize the identification strategy balancing ethical, legal, and practical considerations.

A. Immediate release of closed casket bodies to families after visual identification; DNA testing for fragmented remains only
B. Process all bodies through DNA testing in order of recovery, release bodies as results come; maintain equity
C. Establish community identification committees for visual identification of intact bodies; reserve DNA for disputed cases only
D. Stratified approach: Fast-track closed casket bodies using fingerprints/dental records; prioritize DNA for fragmented/decomposed remains; establish provisional identification with final DNA confirmation for complex cases (Correct Answer)

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***Stratified approach: Fast-track closed casket bodies using fingerprints/dental records; prioritize DNA for fragmented/decomposed remains; establish provisional identification with final DNA confirmation for complex cases*** - This approach balances **efficiency and accuracy** by utilizing faster primary identifiers like **fingerprints and dental records** for intact remains while reserving limited **DNA lab capacity** for complex cases. - It addresses **ethical concerns** by reducing wait times for families and maintains **legal standards** by avoiding the high error rates associated with purely visual identification. *Immediate release of closed casket bodies to families after visual identification; DNA testing for fragmented remains only* - **Visual identification** is notoriously unreliable in mass disasters due to emotional trauma and post-mortem changes, risking **legal and psychological complications** from misidentification. - Relying solely on sight for release ignores more robust primary identifiers like **odontology** which are necessary for forensic validity. *Process all bodies through DNA testing in order of recovery, release bodies as results come; maintain equity* - This method creates a massive **bottleneck** due to the limited capacity of 30 samples/week, causing unnecessary delays of several months for hundreds of families. - It ignores the **triage principle** in forensic identification where simpler, faster methods should be used first to manage **resource constraints**. *Establish community identification committees for visual identification of intact bodies; reserve DNA for disputed cases only* - **Community committees** lack the required **forensic rigor** and professional expertise to provide legally defensible identification in a mass casualty event. - This strategy increases the risk of **false positives**, where multiple families might claim the same remains, leading to further social and legal conflict.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 9: A forensic team managing a mass disaster has identified 80 out of 100 victims using primary identifiers. For the remaining 20 highly fragmented bodies, multiple body parts potentially belonging to the same individual are tagged with different numbers. Family reference DNA samples are available. Evaluate the best protocol to avoid mismatching and ensure accurate reassociation of body parts.

A. Visually reassociate fragments based on size and anthropological features before DNA testing
B. Combine all fragments with similar DNA profiles and release as single body
C. Match all fragments with highest DNA match score to any family sample
D. Use STR profiling for all fragments, create DNA profiles, perform kinship analysis with family samples, and apply statistical threshold for reassociation (Correct Answer)

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***Use STR profiling for all fragments, create DNA profiles, perform kinship analysis with family samples, and apply statistical threshold for reassociation*** - This is the gold standard protocol in **mass disaster management** for highly fragmented remains, using **STR profiling** to produce unique genetic fingerprints for each part. - **Kinship analysis** combined with a high **Likelihood Ratio (LR)** threshold (typically >10,000) ensures statistically valid reassociation and identification, minimizing the risk of false positives. *Visually reassociate fragments based on size and anthropological features before DNA testing* - **Visual reassociation** is highly unreliable in high-energy disasters where fragmentation, **charring**, or decomposition can distort morphological features. - Relying on anthropology alone for commingled remains frequently leads to **mismatching** and creates errors that can complicate subsequent DNA analysis. *Combine all fragments with similar DNA profiles and release as single body* - While it involves DNA, simply "combining" fragments without a formal **kinship analysis** against reference samples fails to verify the actual identity. - Releasing remains based only on matching profiles among fragments (internal matching) doesn't establish the **legal identity** through family reference comparison. *Match all fragments with highest DNA match score to any family sample* - Choosing the "highest score" without applying a strict **statistical threshold** is scientifically flawed and can lead to **misidentification** due to coincidental allele sharing. - Valid identification requires a systematic comparison where each fragment's profile meets a specific, internationally accepted **posterior probability** limit.

Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG Question 10: A commercial aircraft crashes into the sea. Most bodies show marine predation, prolonged water immersion (7 days), and bloating. Fingerprints are macerated. Which forensic finding would be MOST reliable for establishing identity in the maximum number of victims?

A. Clothing and jewelry
B. DNA from femur bone marrow
C. Dental restorations and tooth morphology (Correct Answer)
D. Tattoos and birthmarks

Types of Disasters Explanation: ***Dental restorations and tooth morphology*** - **Teeth** and **dental restorations** are highly resistant to decomposition, marine immersion, and **marine predation**, making them reliable even after 7 days in water. - **Forensic odontology** provides a secondary-to-none method for identity establishment when compared against **antemortem dental records**. *Clothing and jewelry* - These are considered **secondary identifiers** because they can be easily transferred, lost in water currents, or shared between individuals. - While helpful, they do not provide the **scientific certainty** required for legal identification in a mass disaster scenario. *DNA from femur bone marrow* - Although highly accurate, **DNA profiling** is time-consuming and expensive, making it less efficient for identifying the **maximum number** of victims quickly. - After 7 days of immersion and decomposition, extracting high-quality **genomic DNA** can be technically challenging compared to dental analysis. *Tattoos and birthmarks* - These soft tissue features are often the first to be destroyed by **bloating**, **maceration**, or **marine predation** (fish and crustaceans). - Skin slipping and **putrefaction** during prolonged immersion make visual recognition of surface marks unreliable.

More Types of Disasters Indian Medical PG questions available in the OnCourse app. Practice MCQs, flashcards, and get detailed explanations.

Types of Disasters

On this page

Disaster Definitions - Setting the Scene

Nature's Fury - Unpredictable Perils

Human Hand - Preventable Catastrophes

High‑Yield Points - ⚡ Biggest Takeaways

Practice Questions: Types of Disasters

Flashcards: Types of Disasters

Enjoying this lesson?