V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 1: A 21-year-old man presents to his physician because he has been feeling increasingly tired and short of breath at work. He has previously had these symptoms but cannot recall the diagnosis he was given. Chart review reveals the following results:
Oxygen tension in inspired air = 150 mmHg
Alveolar carbon dioxide tension = 50 mmHg
Arterial oxygen tension = 71 mmHg
Respiratory exchange ratio = 0.80
Diffusion studies reveal normal diffusion distance. The patient is administered 100% oxygen but the patient's blood oxygen concentration does not improve. Which of the following conditions would best explain this patient's findings?
- A. Septal defect since birth (Correct Answer)
- B. Use of opioid medications
- C. Pulmonary fibrosis
- D. Pulmonary embolism
- E. Vacation at the top of a mountain
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***Septal defect since birth***
- A congenital heart disease like a **septal defect** causes a right-to-left **shunt**, meaning deoxygenated blood bypasses the lungs and mixes with oxygenated blood.
- This type of shunt leads to **hypoxemia that is refractory to 100% oxygen** because the shunted blood will never pick up oxygen from the lungs.
*Use of opioid medications*
- Opioid use causes **respiratory depression**, leading to **hypoventilation** and increased arterial CO2 with decreased arterial O2.
- However, the hypoxemia from hypoventilation would typically improve significantly with **100% oxygen administration**, unlike in this case.
*Pulmonary fibrosis*
- **Pulmonary fibrosis** causes thickening of the alveolar-capillary membrane, leading to impaired gas exchange and **diffusion limitation**.
- While it causes hypoxemia, the diffusion studies are stated to be **normal**, and hypoxemia due to diffusion limitation often improves with supplemental oxygen.
*Pulmonary embolism*
- A **pulmonary embolism** leads to V/Q mismatch by blocking blood flow to a portion of the lung, causing ventilation with no perfusion.
- Hypoxemia from V/Q mismatch generally **responds well to supplemental oxygen**, as the non-affected lung areas can compensate, unlike the scenario described.
*Vacation at the top of a mountain*
- Being at a high altitude causes **hypobaric hypoxia**, meaning there is a reduced partial pressure of oxygen in the inspired air.
- This type of hypoxemia typically **improves with supplemental oxygen** as it increases the inspired oxygen tension, which is contrary to the patient's findings.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 2: A 32-year-old woman presents with progressive shortness of breath and a dry cough. She says that her symptoms onset recently after a 12-hour flight. Past medical history is unremarkable. Current medications are oral estrogen/progesterone containing contraceptive pills. Her vital signs include: blood pressure 110/60 mm Hg, pulse 101/min, respiratory rate 22/min, oxygen saturation 88% on room air, and temperature 37.9℃ (100.2℉). Her weight is 94 kg (207.2 lb) and height is 170 cm (5 ft 7 in). On physical examination, she is acrocyanotic. There are significant swelling and warmth over the right calf. There are widespread bilateral rales present. Cardiac auscultation reveals accentuation of the pulmonic component of the second heart sound (P2) and an S3 gallop. Which of the following ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) ratios most likely corresponds to this patient’s condition?
- A. 1.3 (Correct Answer)
- B. 1
- C. 0.8
- D. 0.5
- E. 0.3
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***1.3***
- This value represents an increased V/Q ratio, or **dead space ventilation**, which is characteristic of a **pulmonary embolism (PE)**. In PE, a portion of the lung is ventilated but not perfused due to the embolism blocking blood flow, leading to wasted ventilation.
- The patient's symptoms (sudden onset dyspnea after a long flight, use of oral contraceptives, calf swelling, hypoxia, and accentuated P2) are highly suggestive of a PE, which is the most likely cause of increased V/Q mismatch.
*1*
- A V/Q ratio of 1 indicates **perfect matching** of ventilation and perfusion, which is an ideal state not typically achieved throughout the entire lung, especially in disease.
- This value would not explain the patient's severe **hypoxia** and overall clinical picture of respiratory distress.
*0.8*
- This is the **average normal V/Q ratio** for the lung as a whole, representing slightly more perfusion than ventilation.
- While it's a normal physiological state, it does not account for the significant V/Q mismatch indicated by the patient's severe hypoxemia (SpO2 88%) and clinical symptoms.
*0.5*
- This value represents a **low V/Q ratio**, indicating relatively more perfusion than ventilation, often seen in conditions like **shunt physiology** (e.g., pneumonia, atelectasis, pulmonary edema).
- While the patient has rales and an S3 gallop suggesting potential pulmonary edema or heart failure secondary to increased right heart strain, the primary pathophysiology in PE is increased V/Q due to unperfused but ventilated lung regions.
*0.3*
- This is a severely **low V/Q ratio**, approaching a **shunt**, where blood passes through the lungs without being adequately oxygenated. This is typical of conditions like **severe pneumonia, ARDS, or significant atelectasis**.
- While PE can cause some degree of bronchoconstriction leading to areas of low V/Q, the predominant and most impactful V/Q mismatch in PE is the high V/Q ratio in areas of unperfused lung.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 3: Four days after undergoing an elective total hip replacement, a 65-year-old woman develops a DVT that embolizes to the lung. Along with tachypnea, tachycardia, and cough, the patient would most likely present with a PaO2 of what?
- A. 120 mmHg
- B. 100 mmHg
- C. 85 mmHg (Correct Answer)
- D. 110 mmHg
- E. 60 mmHg
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***85 mmHg***
- A pulmonary embolism (PE) causes a **ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) mismatch**, leading to **hypoxemia** and a reduced PaO2.
- While exact values vary, a PaO2 of 85 mmHg indicates **mild to moderate hypoxemia**, which is common in PE, especially with accompanying symptoms like tachypnea and tachycardia.
*120 mmHg*
- This value is significantly **higher than normal (75-100 mmHg)** and would indicate **hyperoxia**, which is inconsistent with acute pulmonary embolism causing respiratory distress.
- A patient with PE would typically have **reduced oxygenation**, not supernormal levels, unless receiving high-flow supplemental oxygen.
*100 mmHg*
- A PaO2 of 100 mmHg is at the **upper end of the normal range** (75-100 mmHg) and would imply **no significant hypoxemia**.
- Given the patient's symptoms of tachypnea, tachycardia, and cough following a DVT with embolization, a normal or high-normal PaO2 is unlikely without aggressive oxygen therapy (which is not stated).
*110 mmHg*
- This value is **above the normal range** and suggests **hyperoxia**, which is contrary to the pathophysiology of a pulmonary embolism.
- A PE impairs gas exchange, leading to a decrease in PaO2, not an increase.
*60 mmHg*
- A PaO2 of 60 mmHg indicates **significant hypoxemia**, which might occur in a severe, large pulmonary embolism or in a patient with underlying lung disease.
- While possible, 85 mmHg represents a more common, moderate hypoxemia seen in PE, especially given the prompt presentation of symptoms.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 4: A 72-year-old obese man presents as a new patient to his primary care physician because he has been feeling tired and short of breath after recently moving to Denver. He is a former 50 pack-year smoker and has previously had deep venous thrombosis. Furthermore, he previously had a lobe of the lung removed due to lung cancer. Finally, he has a family history of a progressive restrictive lung disease. Laboratory values are obtained as follows:
Oxygen tension in inspired air = 130 mmHg
Alveolar carbon dioxide tension = 48 mmHg
Arterial oxygen tension = 58 mmHg
Respiratory exchange ratio = 0.80
Respiratory rate = 20/min
Tidal volume = 500 mL
Which of the following mechanisms is consistent with these values?
- A. Shunt physiology
- B. High altitude
- C. V/Q mismatch
- D. Pulmonary fibrosis
- E. Hypoventilation (Correct Answer)
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***Hypoventilation***
- The arterial oxygen tension (PaO2) of 58 mmHg is consistent with hypoxemia, and the alveolar carbon dioxide tension (PACO2) of 48 mmHg (normal 35-45 mmHg) indicates **hypercapnia**, a hallmark of hypoventilation.
- The **alveolar-arterial (A-a) gradient** can be calculated using the alveolar gas equation: PAO2 = PiO2 - PACO2/R. Here, PAO2 = 130 mmHg - 48 mmHg/0.8 = 130 - 60 = 70 mmHg. The A-a gradient is PAO2 - PaO2 = 70 - 58 = 12 mmHg, which is within the normal range (5-15 mmHg), indicating that the hypoxemia is primarily due to **decreased alveolar ventilation**.
*Shunt physiology*
- A shunt would cause a significant reduction in PaO2 and a **widened A-a gradient** (typically >15 mmHg) due to deoxygenated blood bypassing ventilated areas.
- While shunts do not typically cause hypercapnia unless very severe, the normal A-a gradient here rules out a significant shunt as the primary mechanism for hypoxemia.
*High altitude*
- Moving to a high altitude (like Denver) causes a decrease in **inspired oxygen tension (PiO2)**, leading to hypoxemia.
- However, the provided inspired oxygen tension (130 mmHg) is above what would be expected for significant high-altitude hypoxemia at sea level equivalent, and the hypoxemia here is associated with hypercapnia, which is not a direct result of high altitude itself.
*V/Q mismatch*
- A V/Q mismatch leads to hypoxemia and a **widened A-a gradient**, as some areas of the lung are either underventilated or underperfused.
- While it can cause hypoxemia, a V/Q mismatch is typically associated with **normal or low PaCO2** due to compensatory hyperventilation, not hypercapnia, and the A-a gradient would be elevated.
*Pulmonary fibrosis*
- Pulmonary fibrosis is a restrictive lung disease that leads to impaired gas exchange, causing hypoxemia primarily due to **V/Q mismatch** and **diffusion limitation**.
- This would result in a **widened A-a gradient** and often a **low PaCO2** due to compensatory hyperventilation, rather than the elevated PaCO2 observed in this patient.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 5: A 68-year-old female presents to the emergency room with acute onset of dyspnea and hemoptysis. Her past medical history is unremarkable and she has had no prior surgeries. A ventilation-perfusion scan demonstrates a large perfusion defect that is not matched by a ventilation defect in the left lower lobe. Which of the following would you also expect to find in this patient:
- A. Bradycardia
- B. Increased inspiratory capacity
- C. Claudication
- D. Aortic dilation
- E. Pleuritic chest pain (Correct Answer)
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***Pleuritic chest pain***
- The presented symptoms (dyspnea, hemoptysis, V/Q scan showing unmatched perfusion defect) are highly suggestive of **pulmonary embolism (PE)**. **Pleuritic chest pain** is a common symptom of PE, resulting from inflammation of the pleura often associated with a pulmonary infarct.
- **Pleuritic chest pain** is classically described as sharp, localized pain that worsens with deep inspiration or coughing, which aligns with the potential for pleural irritation in PE.
*Bradycardia*
- **Tachycardia**, not bradycardia, is a common finding in pulmonary embolism, often due to the body's compensatory response to hypoxemia and increased cardiovascular strain.
- Bradycardia would be atypical and likely unrelated to the acute presentation of PE in a previously healthy individual.
*Increased inspiratory capacity*
- In a patient with an acute pulmonary embolism, the inspiratory capacity is more likely to be normal or **decreased** due to discomfort from pleuritic chest pain, dyspnea, and potential V/Q mismatch affecting lung mechanics.
- Increased inspiratory capacity is not a typical physiological response to an acute PE; instead, patients often experience **restrictive breathing patterns**.
*Claudication*
- **Claudication** refers to pain, usually in the legs, caused by too little blood flow during exercise; it typically indicates **peripheral artery disease**.
- While PE is a thrombotic event, claudication is a symptom of chronic arterial insufficiency and is not directly related to acute pulmonary embolism.
*Aortic dilation*
- **Aortic dilation** is associated with conditions like aortic aneurysm or Marfan syndrome and is not a direct consequence or expected finding in acute pulmonary embolism.
- There is no pathophysiological link between acute PE and the immediate development or presence of aortic dilation.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 6: A 68-year-old man comes to the emergency room with difficulty in breathing. He was diagnosed with severe obstructive lung disease a few years back. He uses his medication but often has to come to the emergency room for intravenous therapy to help him breathe. He was a smoker for 40 years smoking two packs of cigarettes every day. Which of the following best represents the expected changes in his ventilation, perfusion and V/Q ratio?
- A. Normal ventilation, low or nonexistent perfusion and infinite V/Q ratio
- B. Medium ventilation and perfusion, V/Q that equals 0.8
- C. Higher ventilation and perfusion with lower V/Q ratio
- D. Low ventilation, normal perfusion and low V/Q ratio (Correct Answer)
- E. Lower ventilation and perfusion, but higher V/Q ratio
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***Low ventilation, normal perfusion and low V/Q ratio***
- In severe **obstructive lung disease** (like COPD), there is airflow limitation, leading to areas of **hypoventilation** in the lungs.
- While ventilation is compromised, blood flow (perfusion) to these areas can remain relatively normal, resulting in a **decreased V/Q ratio**.
*Normal ventilation, low or nonexistent perfusion and infinite V/Q ratio*
- This scenario describes a lung unit with **dead space ventilation**, where there is ventilation but no blood flow (e.g., in a pulmonary embolism).
- The patient's history of **obstructive lung disease** primarily indicates impaired airflow, not a lack of perfusion.
*Medium ventilation and perfusion, V/Q that equals 0.8*
- A **V/Q ratio of 0.8** represents the **ideal normal** ventilation-perfusion matching in a healthy lung.
- The patient has severe obstructive lung disease, which by definition means there is significant mismatch, not normal physiology.
*Higher ventilation and perfusion with lower V/Q ratio*
- While hyperventilation can occur in attempts to compensate, the primary issue in obstructive disease is **impaired ventilation**, not increased ventilation, leading to decreased gas exchange.
- A lower V/Q ratio is expected, but it is driven by **low ventilation**, not higher ventilation and perfusion.
*Lower ventilation and perfusion, but higher V/Q ratio*
- Although both ventilation and perfusion can be affected in severe disease, a **higher V/Q ratio** typically implies areas of increased dead space (more ventilation than perfusion).
- In obstructive disease, the predominant problem is **impaired air entry**, leading to underventilated units with relatively preserved perfusion, thus a **low V/Q ratio**.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 7: Two days after undergoing left hemicolectomy for a colonic mass, a 62-year-old man develops shortness of breath. His temperature is 38.1°C (100.6°F), pulse is 80/min, respirations are 22/min, and blood pressure is 120/78 mm Hg. Pulse oximetry on room air shows an oxygen saturation of 88%. Cardiopulmonary examination shows decreased breath sounds and decreased fremitus at both lung bases. Arterial blood gas analysis on room air shows:
pH 7.35
PaO2 70 mm Hg
PCO2 40 mm Hg
An x-ray of the chest shows a collapse of the bases of both lungs. Which of the following is the most likely underlying mechanism of this patient's hypoxemia?
- A. Increased anatomic dead space
- B. Decreased hemoglobin oxygen-binding capacity
- C. Decreased chest wall compliance
- D. Increased tidal volume
- E. Decreased ratio of ventilated alveoli (Correct Answer)
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***Decreased ratio of ventilated alveoli***
- The patient's presentation with **shortness of breath**, **decreased breath sounds and fremitus at both lung bases**, and **collapsed lung bases on chest x-ray** points to **atelectasis**.
- **Atelectasis** is a common cause of hypoxemia post-surgery. It occurs when alveoli collapse, leading to areas of the lung that are perfused but not ventilated, resulting in a **ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) mismatch** with a decreased ratio of ventilated alveoli.
*Increased anatomic dead space*
- **Anatomic dead space** refers to the conducting airways where gas exchange does not occur. This value is relatively constant and would not increase significantly to cause such profound hypoxemia in this context.
- Conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) can increase dead space, but the patient's acute postoperative presentation and chest X-ray findings do not support this as the primary cause.
*Decreased hemoglobin oxygen-binding capacity*
- This would involve issues like **carbon monoxide poisoning** or specific hemoglobinopathies, which are not indicated by the clinical picture or ABG results (normal pH, PaO2 70 mmHg, PCO2 40 mmHg).
- The PaO2 and SaO2 values indicate a problem with oxygen uptake, not oxygen transport by hemoglobin once bound.
*Decreased chest wall compliance*
- While surgery can cause **pain leading to splinting** and reduced chest wall expansion, which impacts compliance, the primary mechanism of hypoxemia in atelectasis is the **collapse of alveoli**, not solely reduced chest wall movement.
- The **collapsed lung bases** on X-ray directly point to alveolar collapse rather than a general decrease in chest wall compliance as the primary problem.
*Increased tidal volume*
- **Increased tidal volume** would typically improve ventilation and oxygenation, not lead to hypoxemia.
- The patient's **hypoxemia (SaO2 88%, PaO2 70 mmHg)** clearly indicates a problem with oxygen uptake, not an enhancement of respiratory function.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 8: A 62-year-old man is brought to the emergency department with a 2-day history of cough productive of yellowish sputum. He has had fever, chills, and worsening shortness of breath over this time. He has a 10-year history of hypertension and hyperlipidemia. He does not drink alcohol or smoke cigarettes. His current medications include atorvastatin, amlodipine, and metoprolol. His temperature is 38.9°C (102.0°F), pulse is 105/min, respirations are 27/min, and blood pressure is 110/70 mm Hg. He appears in mild distress. He has rales over the left lower lung field. The remainder of the examination shows no abnormalities. Leukocyte count is 15,000/mm3 (87% segmented neutrophils). Arterial blood gas analysis on room air shows:
pH 7.44
pO2 68 mm Hg
pCO2 28 mm Hg
HCO3- 24 mEq/L
O2 saturation 91%
An x-ray of the chest shows a consolidation in the left lower lobe. Asking the patient to lie down in the left lateral decubitus position would most likely result in which of the following?
- A. Decreased ventilation of the left lung
- B. Worsen the hypocapnia
- C. Increase in A-a gradient (Correct Answer)
- D. Increased perfusion of right lung
- E. Improve the hypoxemia
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***Increase in A-a gradient***
- Placing the patient in the **left lateral decubitus position** would worsen V/Q mismatch because the **diseased left lung** (with consolidation) would receive increased perfusion due to gravity.
- This increased perfusion to a poorly ventilated area would further impair gas exchange, leading to a larger **alveolar-arterial (A-a) gradient**.
*Decreased ventilation of the left lung*
- While lying on the left side might slightly restrict the expansion of the left lung, the primary issue is the **consolidation** itself, which already severely impairs ventilation.
- The main problem with positioning is not a further decrease in ventilation but rather the **redistribution of blood flow** to an already compromised lung.
*Worsen the hypocapnia*
- The patient has **hypocapnia (pCO2 28 mm Hg)** due to tachypnea as compensation for hypoxemia, indicating increased minute ventilation.
- While worsening the V/Q mismatch will worsen hypoxemia, it's unlikely to directly worsen hypocapnia further; the body would still try to compensate through increased respiratory drive unless the respiratory muscles become fatigued.
*Increased perfusion of right lung*
- In the left lateral decubitus position, **perfusion due to gravity** would increase in the dependent (left) lung, not the non-dependent (right) lung.
- The right lung would experience relatively decreased perfusion compared to the left lung in this position.
*Improve the hypoxemia*
- Lying on the side of the **diseased lung** (left) typically **worsens hypoxemia** because gravity directs more blood flow to the poorly ventilated, consolidated lung.
- To improve hypoxemia, the patient should be positioned with the **healthy lung dependent** (e.g., right lateral decubitus or semi-Fowler's with the right lung lower) to optimize V/Q matching.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 9: A 55-year-old woman is brought to the emergency department by her husband because of chest pain and a cough productive of blood-tinged sputum that started 1 hour ago. Two days ago, she returned from a trip to China. She has smoked 1 pack of cigarettes daily for 35 years. Her only home medication is oral hormone replacement therapy for postmenopausal hot flashes. Her pulse is 123/min and blood pressure is 91/55 mm Hg. Physical examination shows distended neck veins. An ECG shows sinus tachycardia, a right bundle branch block, and T-wave inversion in leads V5–V6. Despite appropriate lifesaving measures, the patient dies. Examination of the lung on autopsy shows a large, acute thrombus in the right pulmonary artery. Based on the autopsy findings, which of the following is the most likely origin of the thrombus?
- A. Iliac vein (Correct Answer)
- B. Subclavian vein
- C. Renal vein
- D. Great saphenous vein
- E. Posterior tibial vein
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***Iliac vein***
- The iliac vein is a common source of **deep vein thrombosis (DVT)**, which can embolize to the pulmonary arteries, especially with risk factors like prolonged travel and hormone replacement therapy. This type of thrombus is often large enough to cause significant hemodynamic instability and death, as seen clinically.
- The patient's presentation with **chest pain**, **blood-tinged sputum**, **hypotension**, **tachycardia**, **distended neck veins**, and ECG changes (right bundle branch block, T-wave inversion in V5-V6 suggesting **right heart strain**) is classic for a massive pulmonary embolism (PE) originating from a large venous thrombosis, most commonly from the iliofemoral system.
*Subclavian vein*
- While subclavian vein thrombosis can occur, it's typically associated with **central venous catheters** or **thoracic outlet syndrome**. These risk factors are not mentioned in the patient's history.
- Thrombi from this location are a less common cause of **massive pulmonary embolism** compared to lower extremity deep vein thrombosis.
*Renal vein*
- **Renal vein thrombosis** is usually associated with conditions like nephrotic syndrome, malignancy, or hypercoagulable states, and often presents with flank pain or hematuria.
- While it can lead to PE, it's a less common source for a **massive clot** causing acute cardiopulmonary collapse than lower extremity veins.
*Great saphenous vein*
- The great saphenous vein is part of the **superficial venous system**. Superficial thrombophlebitis is generally a benign condition with a low risk of pulmonary embolism.
- When superficial clots do extend into the deep system, they can cause PE, but the primary origin of a massive, fatal PE is typically from the **deep veins**.
*Posterior tibial vein*
- The posterior tibial vein is a **deep vein**, and thrombosis here can certainly lead to PE. However, it is a smaller vein compared to the iliac veins.
- While a posterior tibial vein clot *could* embolize, a **massive pulmonary embolism** resulting in acute death is more frequently caused by larger thrombi from the more proximal, wider deep veins like the iliac or femoral veins.
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism US Medical PG Question 10: A 50-year-old man presents to the urgent care clinic for 3 hours of worsening cough, shortness of breath, and dyspnea. He works as a long-haul truck driver, and he informs you that he recently returned to the west coast from a trip to Arkansas. His medical history is significant for gout, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes mellitus type 2, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and mild intellectual disability. He currently smokes 1 pack of cigarettes/day, drinks a 6-pack of beer/day, and he endorses a past history of injection drug use but currently denies any illicit drug use. The vital signs include: temperature 36.7°C (98.0°F), blood pressure 126/74 mm Hg, heart rate 87/min, and respiratory rate 23/min. His physical examination shows mild, bilateral, coarse rhonchi, but otherwise clear lungs on auscultation, grade 2/6 holosystolic murmur, and a benign abdominal physical examination. He states that he ran out of his albuterol inhaler 6 days ago and has been meaning to follow-up with his primary care physician (PCP) for a refill. Complete blood count (CBC) and complete metabolic panel are within normal limits. He also has a D-dimer result within normal limits. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in evaluation?
- A. Chest computed tomography (CT) with contrast
- B. Chest radiographs (Correct Answer)
- C. Pulmonary function tests
- D. Sputum gram stain and culture
- E. Arterial blood gas
V/Q mismatch in pulmonary embolism Explanation: ***Chest radiographs***
- A **chest X-ray** is the most appropriate initial imaging study for evaluating acute respiratory symptoms in a patient with a history of COPD and recent exacerbating factors (running out of albuterol). It can help identify common causes like **pneumonia**, **pneumothorax**, or **acute exacerbation of COPD**.
- The patient's presentation with worsening cough, shortness of breath, and dyspnea, particularly in the context of running out of his albuterol inhaler, suggests a primary pulmonary issue that a chest X-ray can quickly assess.
*Chest computed tomography (CT) with contrast*
- A **chest CT with contrast** is more detailed but not the initial diagnostic study in this scenario, especially with a normal D-dimer ruling out pulmonary embolism as a high probability.
- It exposes the patient to **higher radiation** and risks associated with contrast, making it less suitable as a first-line investigation unless the chest X-ray is inconclusive or more specific findings are suspected.
*Pulmonary function tests*
- **Pulmonary function tests (PFTs)** are used to diagnose and monitor chronic lung conditions like COPD, but they are generally not performed in an acute urgent care setting for patients presenting with acute respiratory distress.
- PFTs require patient cooperation and are designed to assess baseline lung function, not to identify the **acute cause** of respiratory decompensation.
*Sputum gram stain and culture*
- A **sputum gram stain and culture** might be considered if there's strong suspicion of a bacterial infection (e.g., fever, purulent sputum), but the patient's current symptoms are more aligned with a COPD exacerbation or other acute pulmonary issue.
- Without clear signs of bacterial infection, this test is **not the most immediate or appropriate first step** in evaluating acute dyspnea, as it requires time for results and may delay more crucial diagnostic steps.
*Arterial blood gas*
- An **arterial blood gas (ABG)** can provide information on oxygenation, ventilation, and acid-base status, which is useful in assessing the severity of respiratory failure.
- However, it's typically ordered after an initial clinical and imaging assessment to quantify the physiological impact of the respiratory distress, rather than being the **very first diagnostic step** to identify the cause.
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