Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for Diuretic mechanisms of action. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 1: A 61-year-old male is given acetazolamide to treat open-angle glaucoma. Upon diuresis, his urine is found to be highly alkaline. Which of the following accounts for the alkaline nature of this patient’s urine?
- A. Inhibition of bicarbonate reabsorption in the proximal tubule (Correct Answer)
- B. Inhibition of bicarbonate reabsorption in beta-intercalated cells
- C. Inhibition of acid secretion in alpha-intercalated cells
- D. Inhibition of chloride reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule
- E. Inhibition of chloride reabsorption in the thick ascending loop of Henle
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Inhibition of bicarbonate reabsorption in the proximal tubule***
- **Acetazolamide** is a **carbonic anhydrase inhibitor** that primarily acts on the **proximal tubule** of the kidney.
- Its action here prevents the reabsorption of **bicarbonate (HCO3-)**, leading to its increased excretion in the urine and thus making the urine alkaline.
*Inhibition of chloride reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule*
- This effect is typically associated with **thiazide diuretics**, which inhibit the **Na-Cl cotransporter** in the distal convoluted tubule.
- While it affects electrolyte balance, it does not directly lead to the observed **alkaline urine** in the manner described.
*Inhibition of bicarbonate reabsorption in beta-intercalated cells*
- **Beta-intercalated cells** in the collecting duct secrete bicarbonate, and their inhibition would lead to **acidic urine**, not alkaline.
- They play a role in **bicarbonate secretion**, not reabsorption as seen with acetazolamide's primary action.
*Inhibition of acid secretion in alpha-intercalated cells*
- **Alpha-intercalated cells** secrete acid (H+) into the urine. Inhibiting their function would reduce acid excretion, making the urine less acidic or even alkaline.
- However, the primary mechanism of acetazolamide's effect on urine pH is through **bicarbonate wasting** in the proximal tubule, not direct inhibition of acid secretion in the collecting duct.
*Inhibition of chloride reabsorption in the thick ascending loop of Henle*
- This is the mechanism of action for **loop diuretics** like furosemide, which inhibit the **Na-K-2Cl cotransporter**.
- While loop diuretics cause significant diuresis, they do not directly lead to the pronounced **urinary alkalinization** seen with acetazolamide.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 2: A new drug has been shown to block epithelial sodium channels in the cortical collecting duct. Which of the following is most likely to be decreased upon drug administration?
- A. Urea reabsorption in the collecting tubules
- B. Hydrogen ion secretion in the collecting tubules
- C. Potassium secretion in the collecting tubules (Correct Answer)
- D. Sodium secretion in the collecting tubules
- E. Sodium chloride reabsorption in the distal tubule
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Potassium secretion in the collecting tubules***
- Blocking **epithelial sodium channels (ENaC)** in the cortical collecting duct reduces sodium reabsorption, which in turn diminishes the electrochemical gradient driving **potassium secretion** into the lumen.
- This is because sodium reabsorption creates a more negative luminal charge, attracting potassium ions to move from the cell into the tubule.
- This is the mechanism of **potassium-sparing diuretics** like amiloride and triamterene.
*Urea reabsorption in the collecting tubules*
- Urea **reabsorption** primarily occurs in the **medullary collecting duct** via urea transporters (UT-A1, UT-A3) and is influenced by the inner medullary osmolarity and ADH.
- Blocking ENaC would primarily affect sodium flux and potassium secretion, with minimal direct impact on urea reabsorption in the collecting duct.
*Hydrogen ion secretion in the collecting tubules*
- **Hydrogen ion (H+) secretion** occurs in the collecting tubules via intercalated cells (α-intercalated cells), which is important for acid-base balance.
- While blocking ENaC can indirectly reduce H+ secretion (by decreasing the lumen-negative potential), the primary and most significant effect is on **potassium secretion**, making this a less likely answer.
*Sodium secretion in the collecting tubules*
- The primary function of ENaC is to **reabsorb sodium** from the tubular lumen back into the blood, not to secrete it.
- Sodium is not normally secreted in the collecting tubules; blocking ENaC would decrease sodium **reabsorption**, not affect sodium secretion.
*Sodium chloride reabsorption in the distal tubule*
- **Sodium chloride reabsorption** in the distal convoluted tubule is mainly mediated by the **thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl co-transporter (NCC)**.
- ENaC are predominantly located in the cortical collecting duct (downstream from the DCT), so blocking them would not directly impact NaCl reabsorption in the distal tubule.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 3: A 66-year-old man with congestive heart failure presents to the emergency department complaining of worsening shortness of breath. These symptoms have worsened over the last 3 days. He has a blood pressure of 126/85 mm Hg and heart rate of 82/min. Physical examination is notable for bibasilar crackles. A chest X-ray reveals bilateral pulmonary edema. His current medications include metoprolol succinate and captopril. You wish to add an additional medication targeted towards his symptoms. Of the following, which statement is correct regarding loop diuretics?
- A. Loop diuretics can cause metabolic acidosis
- B. Loop diuretics can cause ammonia toxicity
- C. Loop diuretics can cause hyperlipidemia
- D. Loop diuretics decrease sodium, magnesium, and chloride but increase calcium
- E. Loop diuretics inhibit the action of the Na+/K+/Cl- cotransporter (Correct Answer)
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Loop diuretics inhibit the action of the Na+/K+/Cl- cotransporter***
- Loop diuretics, like furosemide, directly block the **Na+/K+/2Cl- cotransporter** in the **thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle**, preventing the reabsorption of these ions.
- This inhibition leads to increased excretion of water, sodium, potassium, and chloride, which is beneficial in conditions like **pulmonary edema** due to **congestive heart failure**.
*Loop diuretics can cause metabolic acidosis*
- Loop diuretics typically cause **metabolic alkalosis**, not acidosis, because they increase the excretion of hydrogen ions and potassium, leading to a compensatory increase in bicarbonate.
- The increased delivery of sodium to the collecting duct can also stimulate potassium and hydrogen secretion, contributing to alkalosis.
*Loop diuretics can cause ammonia toxicity*
- Loop diuretics do not directly cause **ammonia toxicity**; this is more commonly associated with conditions like **hepatic encephalopathy** or certain other medications.
- Their primary mechanism of action is on renal ion transport, not ammonia metabolism.
*Loop diuretics can cause hyperlipidemia*
- While some diuretics like **thiazide diuretics** can cause mild increases in **lipid levels**, loop diuretics are not typically associated with significant **hyperlipidemia**.
- The most common metabolic side effects of loop diuretics include electrolyte imbalances.
*Loop diuretics decrease sodium, magnesium, and chloride but increase calcium*
- Loop diuretics decrease the reabsorption of **sodium**, **magnesium**, and **chloride**, leading to their increased excretion.
- They also increase **calcium excretion** (cause hypocalcemia), rather than increasing serum calcium levels, by inhibiting its reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 4: A 55-year-old woman presents to the emergency room with severe abdominal pain for the past 24 hours. She has also noticed blood in her urine. She does not have any significant past medical history. Family history is significant for her mother having cholecystitis status post cholecystectomy at age 45. Her vital signs include: temperature 36.8°C (98.2°F), pulse 103/min, respiratory rate 15/min, blood pressure 105/85 mm Hg. Physical examination is significant for a woman continuously moving on the exam table in an attempt to get comfortable. Laboratory findings are significant for the following:
Serum electrolytes
Na 138 mEq/L N: 135–145 mEq/L
K 4.0 mEq/L N: 3.5–5.0 mEq/L
Cl 102 mEq/L N: 98–108 mEq/L
CO2 27 mEq/L N: 22–32 mEq/L
Ca 9.2 mEq/dL N: 8.4–10.2 mEq/dL
PO4 3.5 mg/dL N: 3.0–4.5 mg/dL
A 24-hour urine collection is performed and reveals a urinary calcium of 345 mg/day (ref: < 300 mg/day in men; < 250 mg/day in women). A non-contrast CT of the abdomen is performed and is shown in the exhibit. The patient’s symptoms pass within the next 12 hours with hydration and acetaminophen for pain management. She is prescribed a medication to prevent subsequent episodes. At which of the following parts of the nephron does this medication most likely work?
- A. Descending limb of the loop of Henle
- B. Distal convoluted tubule (Correct Answer)
- C. Proximal tubule
- D. Collecting ducts
- E. Thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: **Distal convoluted tubule**
- The patient's symptoms (severe abdominal pain, hematuria, flank movement, and high urinary calcium) and CT findings (likely urinary calculi) point to **nephrolithiasis** (kidney stones).
- The medication prescribed to prevent subsequent episodes would most likely be a **thiazide diuretic**, which acts on the **distal convoluted tubule** to increase calcium reabsorption and decrease urinary calcium excretion.
*Descending limb of the loop of Henle*
- This segment is primarily responsible for **water reabsorption** and is permeable to water but impermeable to solutes, playing no significant role in the reabsorption of calcium that would be targeted by stone prevention medication.
- No common diuretic for nephrolithiasis prevention directly targets calcium handling in this part of the nephron.
*Proximal tubule*
- While a significant amount of calcium is reabsorbed here, medications specifically used to prevent kidney stones (like thiazides) do not primarily act on the **proximal tubule** for their calcium-sparing effects.
- The primary function of the proximal tubule is **bulk reabsorption** of filtered solutes and water.
*Collecting ducts*
- The collecting ducts are primarily involved in **fine-tuning water reabsorption** under the influence of ADH and also regulate potassium and acid-base balance.
- While some calcium reabsorption can occur here, it's not the main site of action for **thiazide diuretics** used in kidney stone prevention.
*Thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle*
- This segment is responsible for reabsorbing significant amounts of sodium, potassium, and chloride, and is the site of action for **loop diuretics**.
- **Loop diuretics** actually *increase* urinary calcium excretion and are thus contraindicated in calcium kidney stone prevention.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 5: Which mechanism primarily regulates sodium reabsorption in the collecting duct?
- A. Glomerulotubular balance
- B. Atrial natriuretic peptide
- C. Antidiuretic hormone
- D. Aldosterone (Correct Answer)
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Aldosterone***
- **Aldosterone** is the primary hormone that stimulates **sodium reabsorption** and **potassium secretion** in the principal cells of the collecting duct.
- It acts by increasing the synthesis and activity of **ENaC channels** on the apical membrane and **Na+/K+-ATPase pumps** on the basolateral membrane.
*Glomerulotubular balance*
- **Glomerulotubular balance** refers to the mechanism by which the **proximal tubule** reabsorbs a constant fraction of the filtered load, regardless of changes in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
- This mechanism maintains a relatively constant delivery of fluid and solutes to downstream segments but does not primarily regulate sodium in the collecting duct.
*Atrial natriuretic peptide*
- **Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)** primarily **inhibits sodium reabsorption** in the collecting duct, leading to **natriuresis** and **diuresis**, which is the opposite of sodium reabsorption.
- ANP is released in response to atrial stretch, indicating increased blood volume.
*Antidiuretic hormone*
- **Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)** primarily regulates **water reabsorption** in the collecting duct by increasing the insertion of **aquaporin-2 channels** into the apical membrane, making the collecting duct permeable to water.
- While ADH can indirectly affect sodium concentration by influencing water movement, it does not directly regulate sodium transport to the same extent as aldosterone.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 6: A 16-year-old boy is brought to the physician by his mother because she is worried about his behavior. Yesterday, he was expelled from school for repeatedly skipping classes. Over the past 2 months, he was suspended 3 times for bullying and aggressive behavior towards his peers and teachers. Once, his neighbor found him smoking cigarettes in his backyard. In the past, he consistently maintained an A grade average and had been a regular attendee of youth group events at their local church. The mother first noticed this change in behavior 3 months ago, around the time at which his father moved out after discovering his wife was having an affair. Which of the following defense mechanisms best describes the change in this patient's behavior?
- A. Projection
- B. Passive aggression
- C. Regression
- D. Suppression
- E. Acting out (Correct Answer)
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Acting out***
- This defense mechanism involves **engaging in destructive or inappropriate behaviors** to cope with emotional distress, often
**unconsciously** expressing unmet needs or feelings.
- The patient's sudden and significant shift from a well-behaved, high-achieving student to one who skips classes, engages in bullying, and smokes cigarettes can be seen as an expression of his emotional turmoil following his parents' separation.
*Projection*
- **Projection** is an attributional defense mechanism in which a person **attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to
another person**.
- While the patient is exhibiting negative behaviors, he is not explicitly attributing his own internal conflicts or feelings onto others; rather, he is demonstrating them through his actions.
*Passive aggression*
- **Passive aggression** is characterized by expressing negative feelings indirectly, often through **procrastination, stubbornness, or
inefficiency**, rather than direct confrontation.
- The patient's behaviors, such as bullying and skipping classes, are more overt and direct expressions of anger and distress, not indirect resistance.
*Regression*
- **Regression** involves reverting to **earlier, less mature behaviors or coping mechanisms** in response to stress.
- While some of his behaviors could be seen as less mature, the primary mechanism at play here is the direct, behavioral expression of conflict, rather than a return to an earlier developmental stage of coping, such as thumb-sucking or bed-wetting.
*Suppression*
- **Suppression** is a **conscious, deliberate effort to push unwanted thoughts or feelings out of awareness**.
- The patient's behaviors are likely an unconscious or preconscious response to his distress; he is not actively trying to forget or ignore his problems but rather demonstrating his distress through his actions.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 7: An 18-year-old boy presents to the clinic with shortness of breath and fever for the last 2 days. He also has a cough for the same duration. He is asthmatic and uses inhaled albuterol for symptom relief when required. He used albuterol today 3 times at 10-minute intervals but has not had relief of his symptoms. On physical examination, his temperature is 38.3°C (101.0°F), pulse is 130/min, blood pressure is 116/80 mm Hg, and respirations are 28/min. Auscultation of the chest reveals bilateral crackles. Considering that he has already taken inhaled albuterol and has tachycardia, the physician nebulizes him with inhaled ipratropium bromide, which significantly improves his symptoms. Which of the following is the mechanism of action of this drug?
- A. Inhibition of vagally-mediated contraction of bronchial smooth muscles (Correct Answer)
- B. Inhibition of degranulation of mast cells
- C. Inhibition of phosphodiesterase-4, leading to prevention of release of cytokines and chemokines
- D. Inhibition of adenosine receptors in the respiratory tract
- E. Stimulation of β2-adrenergic receptors in bronchial smooth muscle
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Inhibition of vagally-mediated contraction of bronchial smooth muscles***
- Ipratropium bromide is a **short-acting muscarinic antagonist (SAMA)** that blocks M3 muscarinic receptors on bronchial smooth muscle
- This action **inhibits acetylcholine's effect**, leading to bronchodilation by preventing vagally-mediated bronchoconstriction
- Particularly useful as an **adjunct to β2-agonists** in acute asthma exacerbations and COPD
*Inhibition of degranulation of mast cells*
- This is the mechanism of action of **mast cell stabilizers** like cromolyn sodium and nedocromil
- These drugs are used for **asthma prophylaxis**, not acute symptom relief
- They prevent the release of inflammatory mediators like histamine from mast cells
*Inhibition of phosphodiesterase-4, leading to prevention of release of cytokines and chemokines*
- This is the mechanism of action of **phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitors** such as roflumilast
- Primarily used in **severe COPD** to reduce inflammation
- PDE4 inhibition increases intracellular cAMP, which has anti-inflammatory effects
*Inhibition of adenosine receptors in the respiratory tract*
- This is the mechanism of action of **methylxanthines** like theophylline and aminophylline
- Blocking adenosine receptors provides bronchodilation and reduces inflammation
- Now considered **second-line therapy** due to narrow therapeutic index
*Stimulation of β2-adrenergic receptors in bronchial smooth muscle*
- This is the mechanism of action of **β2-agonists** like albuterol (already used by this patient)
- Not the mechanism of ipratropium, which is an **anticholinergic** agent
- The patient had already received albuterol without adequate relief, prompting the addition of ipratropium
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 8: An investigator studying hormone synthesis and transport uses immunocytochemical techniques to localize a carrier protein in the central nervous system of an experimental animal. The investigator finds that this protein is synthesized together with a specific hormone from a composite precursor. The protein is involved in the transport of the hormone from the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei to its destination. The hormone transported by these carrier proteins is most likely responsible for which of the following functions?
- A. Stimulation of thyroglobulin cleavage
- B. Upregulation of renal aquaporin-2 channels (Correct Answer)
- C. Hyperplasia of the adrenal zona fasciculata
- D. Increased insulin-like growth factor 1 production
- E. Maturation of primordial germ cells
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Upregulation of renal aquaporin-2 channels***
- The description of a hormone synthesized in the **supraoptic** and **paraventricular nuclei** and transported by a carrier protein refers to **antidiuretic hormone (ADH)**, also known as vasopressin.
- ADH's primary function in the kidney is to **increase water reabsorption** by upregulating **aquaporin-2 channels** in the principal cells of the collecting ducts.
*Stimulation of thyroglobulin cleavage*
- **Thyroglobulin cleavage** and subsequent release of thyroid hormones (T3, T4) are stimulated by **thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)**, which is produced by the anterior pituitary, not the hypothalamus.
- The described origin in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei is inconsistent with TSH.
*Hyperplasia of the adrenal zona fasciculata*
- **Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)** from the anterior pituitary stimulates the adrenal cortex, including the zona fasciculata, to produce cortisol.
- The hormone described here originates in the hypothalamus and is transported to the posterior pituitary, not stimulating adrenal hyperplasia.
*Increased insulin-like growth factor 1 production*
- **Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)** production is stimulated primarily by **growth hormone (GH)**, which is secreted by the anterior pituitary.
- This function is not associated with hormones produced in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei.
*Maturation of primordial germ cells*
- The maturation of **primordial germ cells** is regulated by **gonadotropins (FSH and LH)**, which are secreted by the anterior pituitary, and sex steroids.
- This process is not directly controlled by hormones originating from the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 9: A 32-year-old woman is admitted to the emergency department for 36 hours of intense left-sided back pain that extends into her left groin. She reports that the pain started a day after a charitable 5 km (3.1 mi) marathon. The past medical history is relevant for multiple complaints of eye dryness and dry mouth. Physical examination is unremarkable, except for intense left-sided costovertebral pain. The results from laboratory tests are shown.
Laboratory test Result
Serum Na+ 137
Serum Cl- 110
Serum K+ 3.0
Serum creatinine (SCr) 0.82
Arterial blood gas Result
pH 7.28
pO2 98 mm Hg
pCO2 28.5 mm Hg
SaO2% 98%
HCO3- 15 mm Hg
Which of the following explains this patient’s condition?
- A. Carbonic acid accumulation
- B. Decreased bicarbonate renal absorption
- C. Decreased renal excretion of hydrogen ions (H+) (Correct Answer)
- D. Decreased synthesis of ammonia (NH3)
- E. Decreased excretion of nonvolatile acids
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Decreased renal excretion of hydrogen ions (H+)***
- The patient presents with **metabolic acidosis** (pH 7.28, HCO3- 15 mEq/L) with **respiratory compensation** (pCO2 28.5 mm Hg). The anion gap is **normal** (Na+ - (Cl- + HCO3-) = 137 - (110 + 15) = **12 mEq/L**), indicating a **non-anion gap metabolic acidosis**.
- The history of **dry eyes and dry mouth** strongly suggests **Sjögren syndrome**, which is commonly associated with **Type 1 (distal) renal tubular acidosis**.
- In **Type 1 RTA**, the distal tubule alpha-intercalated cells cannot adequately secrete H+ ions, leading to metabolic acidosis with **inability to acidify urine** (urine pH > 5.5). Associated findings include **hypokalemia** (K+ 3.0), **nephrolithiasis** (calcium phosphate stones due to alkaline urine), and hypercalciuria.
- The left-sided flank pain radiating to the groin is consistent with **nephrolithiasis**, a common complication of Type 1 RTA.
*Carbonic acid accumulation*
- **Carbonic acid accumulation** indicates **respiratory acidosis** with elevated pCO2, which is not present here.
- The patient has a **low pCO2 (28.5 mm Hg)**, representing appropriate **respiratory compensation** for the primary metabolic acidosis.
*Decreased bicarbonate renal absorption*
- **Decreased bicarbonate renal absorption** characterizes **Type 2 (proximal) RTA**.
- While Type 2 RTA also causes non-anion gap metabolic acidosis, it is **not typically associated with Sjögren syndrome** and would present with different features (glycosuria, aminoaciduria, phosphaturia as part of Fanconi syndrome).
- Type 2 RTA can acidify urine to pH < 5.5 when serum HCO3- is low, unlike Type 1 RTA.
*Decreased synthesis of ammonia (NH3)*
- **Decreased ammonia synthesis** is characteristic of **Type 4 RTA** or severe chronic kidney disease.
- Type 4 RTA presents with **hyperkalemia** (due to hypoaldosteronism), not the hypokalemia seen in this patient.
- The normal serum creatinine (0.82 mg/dL) rules out significant renal failure.
*Decreased excretion of nonvolatile acids*
- **Decreased excretion of nonvolatile acids** would cause **elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis** (e.g., lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, or advanced renal failure with accumulation of organic acids).
- This patient has a **normal anion gap (12 mEq/L)** and **normal renal function** (creatinine 0.82 mg/dL), making this mechanism unlikely.
- The clinical context of Sjögren syndrome with dry eyes/mouth points specifically to distal RTA.
Diuretic mechanisms of action US Medical PG Question 10: A 17-year-old boy comes to the physician for a follow-up examination. Two months ago, he suffered a spinal fracture after a fall from the roof. He feels well. His father has multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Vital signs are within normal limits. Examination shows no abnormalities. Laboratory studies show:
Hemoglobin 13.7 g/dL
Serum
Creatinine 0.7 mg/dL
Proteins
Total 7.0 g/dL
Albumin 4.1 g/dL
Calcium 11.4 mg/dL
Phosphorus 5.3 mg/dL
Alkaline phosphatase 100 U/L
Which of the following is the most likely cause of these findings?
- A. Immobilization (Correct Answer)
- B. Parathyroid adenoma
- C. Paraneoplastic syndrome
- D. Sarcoidosis
- E. Pseudohypercalcemia
Diuretic mechanisms of action Explanation: ***Immobilization***
- Prolonged **immobilization**, especially after a spinal fracture, leads to **bone resorption**, releasing calcium and phosphorus into the bloodstream, causing **hypercalcemia** and **hyperphosphatemia**.
- Though calcium and phosphorus are elevated, the **alkaline phosphatase** is normal, which is consistent with immobilization-induced bone resorption rather than primary bone disease.
*Parathyroid adenoma*
- A **parathyroid adenoma** causes primary **hyperparathyroidism**, characterized by **hypercalcemia** and **hypophosphatemia** (due to increased renal phosphate excretion), which contradicts the elevated phosphorus level seen here.
- Although the father has MEN1, a personal history of parathyroid adenoma is not indicated by the lab results.
*Paraneoplastic syndrome*
- **Paraneoplastic syndrome** causing hypercalcemia is typically due to ectopic production of **parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP)**, leading to **hypercalcemia** with **low PTH** and generally **low phosphorus** levels.
- This condition most commonly occurs with malignancies, such as squamous cell carcinoma, which is not indicated in this healthy-appearing young man with a recent fracture.
*Sarcoidosis*
- **Sarcoidosis** causes hypercalcemia due to increased synthesis of **1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D** by activated macrophages, leading to increased intestinal calcium absorption.
- This typically results in **hypercalcemia** with **normal or low PTH** and **normal or low phosphorus** levels; it is not associated with elevated phosphorus.
*Pseudohypercalcemia*
- **Pseudohypercalcemia** is an artifactual elevation of total calcium, usually due to **severe dehydration** or **elevated protein** levels, particularly **albumin** or **immunoglobulins**.
- In this case, the albumin and total protein levels are within the normal range, making pseudohypercalcemia unlikely.
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