A 40-year-old female volunteers for an invasive study to measure her cardiac function. She has no previous cardiovascular history and takes no medications. With the test subject at rest, the following data is collected using blood tests, intravascular probes, and a closed rebreathing circuit: Blood hemoglobin concentration 14 g/dL Arterial oxygen content 0.22 mL O2/mL Arterial oxygen saturation 98% Venous oxygen content 0.17 mL O2/mL Venous oxygen saturation 78% Oxygen consumption 250 mL/min The patient's pulse is 75/min, respiratory rate is 14/ min, and blood pressure is 125/70 mm Hg. What is the cardiac output of this volunteer?

Body surface area is required to calculate cardiac output.

Stroke volume is required to calculate cardiac output.

Which of the following physiologic changes decreases pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR)?

Inhaling the entire vital capacity (VC)

Inhaling the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

Exhaling the entire vital capacity (VC)

Exhaling the expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Breath holding maneuver at functional residual capacity (FRC)

In the coronary steal phenomenon, vessel dilation is paradoxically harmful because blood is diverted from ischemic areas of the myocardium. Which of the following is responsible for the coronary steal phenomenon?

Dilation of the large coronary arteries

Volume loss of fluid in the periphery

On cardiology service rounds, your team sees a patient admitted with an acute congestive heart failure exacerbation. In congestive heart failure, decreased cardiac function leads to decreased renal perfusion, which eventually leads to excess volume retention. To test your knowledge of physiology, your attending asks you which segment of the nephron is responsible for the majority of water absorption. Which of the following is a correct pairing of the segment of the nephron that reabsorbs the majority of all filtered water with the means by which that segment absorbs water?

Proximal convoluted tubule via passive diffusion following ion reabsorption

Distal convoluted tubule via passive diffusion following ion reabsorption

Distal convoluted tubule via aquaporin channels

Thick ascending loop of Henle via passive diffusion following ion reabsorption

Collecting duct via aquaporin channels

An experiment to determine the effects of gravity on blood pressure is conducted on 3 individuals of equal height and blood pressure oriented in different positions in space. Participant A is strapped in a supine position on a bed turned upside down in a vertical orientation with his head towards the floor and his feet towards the ceiling. Participant B is strapped in a supine position on a bed turned downwards in a vertical orientation with his head towards the ceiling and his feet just about touching the floor. Participant C is strapped in a supine position on a bed in a horizontal orientation. Blood pressure readings are then taken at the level of the head, heart, and feet from all 3 participants. Which of these positions will have the lowest recorded blood pressure reading?

Participant A: at the level of the feet

Participant B: at the level of the feet

Participant A: at the level of the head

Participant C: at the level of the heart

Participant C: at the level of the feet

A 55-year-old woman is brought to the emergency department because of worsening upper abdominal pain for 8 hours. She reports that the pain radiates to the back and is associated with nausea. She has hypertension and hyperlipidemia, for which she takes enalapril, furosemide, and simvastatin. Her temperature is 37.5°C (99.5 °F), blood pressure is 84/58 mm Hg, and pulse is 115/min. The lungs are clear to auscultation. Examination shows abdominal distention with epigastric tenderness and guarding. Bowel sounds are decreased. Extremities are warm. Laboratory studies show: Hematocrit 48% Leukocyte count 13,800/mm3 Platelet count 175,000/mm3 Serum: Calcium 8.0 mg/dL Urea nitrogen 32 mg/dL Amylase 250 U/L An ECG shows sinus tachycardia. Which of the following is the most likely underlying cause of this patient's vital sign abnormalities?

Decreased albumin concentration

Principles of blood flow (Poiseuille's law) | Hemodynamics

Ohm's Law for Fluids - The Basic Equation

Blood flow (Q) through a vessel is analogous to Ohm's law for electrical circuits, providing a fundamental model for hemodynamics.
The core relationship is defined by the formula: $Q = \Delta P / R$.
- Q: Represents the flow rate of blood (e.g., L/min).
- ΔP: The pressure gradient between two points in the vessel (P₁ - P₂). This is the driving force for flow.
- R: The vascular resistance to blood flow.

⭐ The entire cardiovascular system's regulation is based on this principle. It's often expressed as Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) = Cardiac Output (CO) × Systemic Vascular Resistance (SVR), a critical formula for understanding blood pressure control.

Blood flow diversion and Poiseuille's Law in treatment

Poiseuille's Law - The Radius Rules All

Defines the relationship between pressure, flow, and resistance for laminar flow in a cylindrical tube.
Resistance (R) is the key determinant, calculated as: $R = \frac{8 \eta L}{\pi r^4}$
- Radius (r): The most powerful factor. Resistance is inversely proportional to the radius to the fourth power ($1/r^4$).
- Viscosity ($\oldsymbol{\eta}$): Direct relationship. ↑ viscosity (e.g., polycythemia) → ↑ resistance → ↓ flow.
- Length (L): Direct relationship. Longer vessels have higher resistance.

⭐ Halving the vessel radius increases resistance by 16-fold ($2^4$) and reduces flow by 16-fold, assuming a constant pressure gradient. This principle is critical in arteriolar regulation of blood pressure and flow.

📌 Mnemonic: Think of drinking through a straw. A wider (↑r) and shorter (↓L) straw with less thick (↓η) liquid allows for the easiest flow.

Resistance Networks - Series vs. Parallel

Parallel and Series Microvascular Network

Feature	Series Circuit	Parallel Circuit
Arrangement	Blood flows sequentially through vessels (one after another).	Blood is distributed simultaneously among parallel vessels.
Total Resistance ($R_{total}$)	Sum of individual resistances: $R_{total} = R_1 + R_2 + ...$	Reciprocal of total is sum of reciprocals: $1/R_{total} = 1/R_1 + 1/R_2 + ...$
Effect	Adding a resistor ↑ total resistance.	Adding a resistor ↓ total resistance.
Anatomy	Within organs (e.g., kidney: afferent arteriole → glomerulus → efferent arteriole).	Systemic circulation (major arteries branching off aorta to supply organs).

Clinical Correlations - When Flow Goes Wrong

Radius ($r$): The most powerful determinant of flow ($Q \propto r^4$).
- ↓r (Decreased Radius): Atherosclerosis, vasculitis, or arteriolar vasoconstriction dramatically ↓Q, leading to tissue ischemia or infarction.
- ↑r (Increased Radius): Arteriolar vasodilation (e.g., during exercise, sepsis) significantly ↑Q locally.
Viscosity ($\[eta]$): Primarily determined by hematocrit.
- ↑η (Increased Viscosity): Polycythemia, multiple myeloma, and dehydration lead to sluggish flow and ↑risk of thrombosis.
- ↓η (Decreased Viscosity): Anemia can cause hyperdynamic circulation and systolic flow murmurs.

Atherosclerosis and blood flow reduction

⭐ A 50% reduction in vessel radius increases resistance 16-fold ($1/r^4$) and reduces flow to just ~6% of the original, highlighting the critical impact of stenosis.

High‑Yield Points - ⚡ Biggest Takeaways

Blood flow (Q) is directly proportional to the pressure gradient (ΔP) and radius to the fourth power (r⁴).

Flow is inversely proportional to viscosity (η) and vessel length (L).

Vessel radius is the most powerful determinant of flow; halving the radius increases resistance 16-fold.

Arterioles are the principal sites of systemic vascular resistance regulation.

Viscosity is primarily determined by hematocrit; ↑ hematocrit (polycythemia) ↑ viscosity and ↓ flow.