Diving physiology US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for Diving physiology. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 1: During a clinical study examining the diffusion of gas between the alveolar compartment and the pulmonary capillary blood, men between the ages of 20 and 50 years are evaluated while they hold a sitting position. After inhaling a water-soluble gas that rapidly combines with hemoglobin, the concentration of the gas in the participant's exhaled air is measured and the diffusion capacity is calculated. Assuming that the concentration of the inhaled gas remains the same, which of the following is most likely to increase the flow of the gas across the alveolar membrane?
- A. Deep exhalation
- B. Entering a cold chamber
- C. Treadmill exercise (Correct Answer)
- D. Standing straight
- E. Assuming a hunched position
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Correct: Treadmill exercise***
- **Treadmill exercise** increases cardiac output and pulmonary blood flow, which in turn recruits and distends more **pulmonary capillaries**. This increases the **surface area** available for gas exchange and reduces the diffusion distance, thereby enhancing the flow of gas across the alveolar membrane.
- Exercise also typically leads to deeper and more frequent breaths, increasing the **ventilation-perfusion matching** and overall efficiency of gas exchange.
- According to Fick's law of diffusion (Vgas = A/T × D × ΔP), increasing the surface area (A) directly increases gas flow.
*Incorrect: Deep exhalation*
- **Deep exhalation** would empty the lungs more completely, potentially leading to alveolar collapse in some regions and thus **decreasing the alveolar surface area** available for gas exchange.
- This would also reduce the **driving pressure** for gas diffusion by lowering the alveolar concentration of the inhaled gas.
*Incorrect: Entering a cold chamber*
- Exposure to a **cold chamber** can cause **bronchoconstriction** in some individuals, particularly those with reactive airways, which would increase airway resistance and potentially reduce alveolar ventilation.
- While metabolic rate may slightly increase in the cold, the primary effect on the lungs is unlikely to promote increased gas diffusion in a healthy individual.
*Incorrect: Standing straight*
- **Standing straight** is a normal physiological posture and does not significantly alter the **pulmonary capillary recruitment** or the alveolar surface area in a way that would dramatically increase gas flow compared to a seated position.
- There might be minor gravitational effects on blood flow distribution, but these are generally less impactful than dynamic changes like exercise.
*Incorrect: Assuming a hunched position*
- **Assuming a hunched position** can restrict chest wall expansion and diaphragm movement, leading to **reduced tidal volume** and overall alveolar ventilation.
- This posture, by reducing lung volumes and potentially compressing the lungs, would likely **decrease the effective surface area** for gas exchange and therefore reduce gas flow.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 2: A 40-year-old Caucasian male presents to the emergency room after being shot in the arm in a hunting accident. His shirt is soaked through with blood. He has a blood pressure of 65/40, a heart rate of 122, and his skin is pale, cool to the touch, and moist. This patient is most likely experiencing all of the following EXCEPT:
- A. Decreased sarcomere length in the myocardium
- B. Increased stroke volume (Correct Answer)
- C. Confusion and irritability
- D. Decreased preload
- E. Increased thromboxane A2
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Increased stroke volume***
- The patient is experiencing **hypovolemic shock** due to significant blood loss, meaning their **cardiac output** is severely compromised.
- In shock, the heart attempts to compensate by increasing **heart rate**, but **stroke volume** is typically decreased due to reduced **preload**.
*Decreased sarcomere length in the myocardium*
- In situations of significant blood loss and **decreased preload**, there is less venous return to the heart, leading to reduced end-diastolic volume.
- According to the **Frank-Starling law**, reduced end-diastolic volume results in shorter initial sarcomere length, which reduces the force of contraction and thus, **stroke volume**.
*Confusion and irritability*
- **Hypovolemic shock** leads to widespread **tissue hypoperfusion**, especially to vital organs like the brain.
- Reduced cerebral blood flow results in impaired brain function, manifesting as **confusion, irritability**, and altered mental status.
*Decreased preload*
- Significant blood loss leads to a reduction in the **total circulating blood volume**.
- This reduction directly decreases the venous return to the heart, thus lowering the **end-diastolic volume** and subsequently, the **preload**.
*Increased thromboxane A2*
- In response to **vascular injury and bleeding**, the body initiates hemostasis, a critical component of which is platelet aggregation.
- **Thromboxane A2** is a potent vasoconstrictor and platelet aggregator released by activated platelets to form a **platelet plug** and help stop bleeding.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 3: A 3-year-old boy is brought to the emergency department with a history of unintentional ingestion of seawater while swimming in the sea. The amount of seawater ingested is not known. There is no history of vomiting. On physical examination, the boy appears confused and is asking for more water to drink. His serum sodium is 152 mmol/L (152 mEq/L). Which of the following changes in volumes and osmolality of body fluids are most likely to be present in this boy?
- A. Decreased ECF volume, unaltered ICF volume, unaltered body osmolality
- B. Increased ECF volume, decreased ICF volume, increased body osmolality (Correct Answer)
- C. Increased ECF volume, unaltered ICF volume, unaltered body osmolality
- D. Increased ECF volume, increased ICF volume, decreased body osmolality
- E. Decreased ECF volume, decreased ICF volume, increased body osmolality
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Increased ECF volume, decreased ICF volume, increased body osmolality***
- Ingesting **seawater**, which is **hypertonic** (higher sodium concentration than plasma), leads to an increase in total body osmolality because the ingested sodium is absorbed into the extracellular fluid (ECF). This causes water to shift from the intracellular fluid (ICF) to the ECF to equilibrate osmolality, leading to a **decreased ICF volume** and an **increased ECF volume**, consistent with the patient's **serum sodium of 152 mmol/L**.
- The patient's confusion and excessive thirst ("asking for more water") are classic symptoms of **hypernatremia** and **dehydration** at the cellular level, as cells shrink due to water loss.
*Decreased ECF volume, unaltered ICF volume, unaltered body osmolality*
- This option does not align with the ingestion of **hypertonic seawater**, which would inevitably increase ECF volume and body osmolality due to the absorption of excess sodium.
- An **unaltered ICF volume** and body osmolality would imply no significant osmotic shift or change in solute concentration, which contradicts the clinical picture of hypernatremia.
*Increased ECF volume, unaltered ICF volume, unaltered body osmolality*
- While ECF volume would increase due to fluid shift, the ingested **hypertonic** seawater would significantly **increase body osmolality**, not leave it unaltered.
- An **unaltered ICF volume** is unlikely as the osmotic gradient created by hypernatremia would draw water out of cells.
*Increased ECF volume, increased ICF volume, decreased body osmolality*
- Both **increased ECF and ICF volumes** are inconsistent with the hypernatremia caused by seawater ingestion; hypernatremia typically causes fluid to shift *out* of cells, thereby decreasing ICF volume.
- A **decreased body osmolality** would be seen in cases of hyponatremia (excessive water intake or solute loss), which is the opposite of this clinical scenario.
*Decreased ECF volume, decreased ICF volume, increased body osmolality*
- While ICF volume would decrease and body osmolality would increase, the ECF volume is more likely to **increase** initially due to the ingested volume of seawater and the subsequent osmotic shift of water from the ICF.
- A **decreased ECF volume** would typically occur only with massive dehydration or severe fluid loss, not with the ingestion of a significant amount of fluid, even if hypertonic.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 4: A 19-year-old man presents to the clinic with a complaint of increasing shortness of breath for the past 2 years. His shortness of breath is associated with mild chest pain and occasional syncopal attacks during strenuous activity. There is no history of significant illness in the past, however, one of his uncles had similar symptoms when he was his age and died while playing basketball a few years later. He denies alcohol use, tobacco consumption, and the use of recreational drugs. On examination, pulse rate is 76/min and is regular and bounding; blood pressure is 130/70 mm Hg. A triple apical impulse is observed on the precordium and a systolic ejection crescendo-decrescendo murmur is audible between the apex and the left sternal border along with a prominent fourth heart sound. The physician then asks the patient to take a deep breath, close his mouth, and pinch his nose and try to breathe out without allowing his cheeks to bulge out. In doing so, the intensity of the murmur increases. Which of the following hemodynamic changes would be observed first during this maneuver?
- A. ↓ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↑ Heart rate, ↑ Baroreceptor activity, ↓ Parasympathetic Outflow
- B. ↑ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↓ Heart rate, ↑ Baroreceptor activity, ↑ Parasympathetic Outflow (Correct Answer)
- C. ↑ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↓ Heart rate, ↓ Baroreceptor activity, ↑ Parasympathetic Outflow
- D. ↑ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↑ Heart rate, ↓ Baroreceptor activity, ↓ Parasympathetic Outflow
- E. ↑ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↑ Heart rate, ↑ Baroreceptor activity, ↑ Parasympathetic Outflow
Diving physiology Explanation: **↑ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↓ Heart rate, ↑ Baroreceptor activity, ↑ Parasympathetic Outflow**
- This maneuver is the **Valsalva Maneuver**, which involves forced expiration against a closed glottis. It causes a transient increase in **intrathoracic pressure**, compressing the great vessels and temporarily increasing **mean arterial pressure**.
- The initial rise in blood pressure is detected by **baroreceptors**, leading to a reflex decrease in **heart rate** via increased **parasympathetic outflow**.
*↓ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↑ Heart rate, ↑ Baroreceptor activity, ↓ Parasympathetic Outflow*
- This option describes changes more typical of the **later phases** of a Valsalva maneuver (Phase 2), where venous return and cardiac output decrease, leading to a fall in MAP and a compensatory increase in heart rate.
- It does not represent the **immediate hemodynamic changes** (Phase 1) that occur during the initial strain of the maneuver.
*↑ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↓ Heart rate, ↓ Baroreceptor activity, ↑ Parasympathetic Outflow*
- A decrease in **baroreceptor activity** would typically lead to an *increase* in heart rate and a *decrease* in parasympathetic outflow, contrary to the initial response to increased blood pressure.
- The initial increase in MAP correctly leads to *increased* baroreceptor activity.
*↑ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↑ Heart rate, ↓ Baroreceptor activity, ↓ Parasympathetic Outflow*
- An increase in **mean arterial pressure** (MAP) would reflexively cause a *decrease* in heart rate and an *increase* in parasympathetic outflow, mediated by *increased* baroreceptor activity, not decreased activity.
- Therefore, the proposed changes in heart rate, baroreceptor activity, and parasympathetic outflow are inconsistent with an initial increase in MAP.
*↑ Mean Arterial Pressure, ↑ Heart rate, ↑ Baroreceptor activity, ↑ Parasympathetic Outflow*
- While an increase in **mean arterial pressure** does lead to an increase in **baroreceptor activity** and **parasympathetic outflow**, the reflexive response to this increased pressure is a *decrease* in **heart rate**, not an increase.
- An increased heart rate combined with increased parasympathetic outflow is contradictory, as sympathetic and parasympathetic systems typically exert opposing effects on heart rate.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 5: A 19-year-old man is rushed to the emergency department 30 minutes after diving head-first into a shallow pool of water from a cliff. He was placed on a spinal board and a rigid cervical collar was applied by the emergency medical technicians. On arrival, he is unconscious and withdraws all extremities to pain. His temperature is 36.7°C (98.1°F), pulse is 70/min, respirations are 8/min, and blood pressure is 102/70 mm Hg. Pulse oximetry on room air shows an oxygen saturation of 96%. The pupils are equal and react sluggishly to light. There is a 3-cm (1.2-in) laceration over the forehead. The lungs are clear to auscultation. Cardiac examination shows no abnormalities. The abdomen is soft and nontender. There is a step-off palpated over the cervical spine. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management?
- A. Rapid sequence intubation (Correct Answer)
- B. CT scan of the spine
- C. X-ray of the cervical spine
- D. MRI of the spine
- E. Rectal tone assessment
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Rapid sequence intubation***
- The patient has a **compromised airway** due to very shallow respirations (8/min), indicating impending respiratory failure, which is prioritized in the management of trauma patients.
- Due to the high suspicion of a **cervical spine injury** (diving into a shallow pool, step-off palpable over the cervical spine), **rapid sequence intubation** is the safest way to secure the airway while maintaining **cervical spine immobilization**.
*CT scan of the spine*
- Imaging studies of the spine are important for diagnosis but must be performed **after securing the airway** and stabilizing vital functions.
- While a CT scan is the preferred imaging modality for evaluating bony spinal trauma, it does not address the immediate life-threatening issue of respiratory insufficiency.
*X-ray of the cervical spine*
- X-rays are less sensitive for detecting all types of cervical spine injuries, especially ligamentous damage, compared to CT or MRI.
- As with other imaging, it should be done **after airway management** is secured.
*MRI of the spine*
- MRI is excellent for evaluating **soft tissue structures** like spinal cord, ligaments, and discs, and is generally performed after initial stabilization and CT for bony injury.
- It is not an immediate diagnostic priority when the patient's airway and breathing are acutely compromised.
*Rectal tone assessment*
- This assessment is part of the neurological examination to evaluate for spinal cord injury, specifically involving the **sacral segments**.
- While important for comprehensive neurological assessment, it is not the most appropriate *next step* when the patient has critical airway and breathing compromise.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 6: A 32-year-old woman comes to the physician for a screening health examination that is required for scuba diving certification. The physician asks her to perform a breathing technique: following deep inspiration, she is instructed to forcefully exhale against a closed airway and contract her abdominal muscles while different cardiovascular parameters are evaluated. Which of the following effects is most likely after 10 seconds in this position?
- A. Decreased intra-abdominal pressure
- B. Decreased left ventricular stroke volume (Correct Answer)
- C. Decreased pulse rate
- D. Decreased systemic vascular resistance
- E. Increased venous return to left atrium
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Decreased left ventricular stroke volume***
- After 10 seconds of performing the **Valsalva maneuver**, the increased intrathoracic pressure significantly reduces **venous return** to the heart.
- Reduced venous return leads to decreased **ventricular filling** (preload), which in turn diminishes **left ventricular stroke volume** and cardiac output.
*Decreased intra-abdominal pressure*
- The instruction to "contract her abdominal muscles" during forceful exhalation against a closed airway (Valsalva maneuver) directly leads to an **increase** in **intra-abdominal pressure**, not a decrease.
- This increase in intra-abdominal pressure further impedes venous return from the lower extremities to the heart.
*Decreased pulse rate*
- In the initial phase of the Valsalva maneuver (first 5-10 seconds), the decrease in cardiac output triggers a **reflex tachycardia** to maintain blood pressure, leading to an **increased pulse rate**.
- A decrease in pulse rate (bradycardia) is more characteristic of the release phase, not during the sustained strain.
*Decreased systemic vascular resistance*
- During the Valsalva maneuver, the body attempts to compensate for the drop in cardiac output and blood pressure by increasing **sympathetic tone**, which causes **vasoconstriction** and thus **increases systemic vascular resistance**.
- A decrease in systemic vascular resistance would further drop blood pressure and is not the physiological response during this phase.
*Increased venous return to left atrium*
- The Valsalva maneuver dramatically **reduces venous return** to both the right and left atria due to the high intrathoracic pressure compressing the great veins.
- This decreased venous return is the primary mechanism leading to the subsequent fall in cardiac output during the maneuver.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 7: A 67-year-old man presents to the surgical clinic with swelling of his right leg, fever, and chills for 2 days. The maximum recorded temperature was 38.3°C (101.0°F) at home. His right leg is red and swollen from the dorsum of the foot to the thigh with an ill-defined edge. Venous stasis ulcers are present in both of his limbs, but those on the right have a yellow discharge. His vitals include the following: blood pressure is 120/78 mm Hg, heart rate is 94/min, temperature is 38.3°C (101.0°F), and respiratory rate is 16/min. On physical examination, there is tenderness and warmth compared with his normal leg. Dorsalis pedis pulses are present on both of the ankles. What is the most likely cause of the right shift of the hemoglobin dissociation curve for his condition?
- A. Decrease in temperature
- B. Increase in CO2 production
- C. Increase in pH
- D. Increase in temperature (Correct Answer)
- E. Decrease in 2,3-DPG
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Increase in temperature***
- The patient presents with **fever (38.3°C)**, which is explicitly mentioned multiple times in the clinical scenario and represents a **systemic response** to infection.
- **Increased temperature** directly causes a **right shift** in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve by **decreasing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen**.
- This facilitates oxygen release to metabolically active tissues, particularly important in areas of infection and inflammation.
- While multiple factors can cause right shifts during infection, the **fever is the most prominently featured clinical finding** in this case and represents a measurable systemic change.
*Decrease in temperature*
- A **decrease in temperature** causes a **left shift** in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, **increasing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen**.
- This would impair oxygen release to tissues, which is counterproductive during infection when tissues require increased oxygen delivery.
*Increase in CO2 production*
- While **increased CO2 production** does occur during infection due to increased tissue metabolism and does cause a **right shift** via the **Bohr effect** (CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-, leading to decreased pH), this is not the primary factor being highlighted in this clinical presentation.
- The Bohr effect (acidosis from increased CO2 and metabolic acids) is an important physiological response, but the question emphasizes the **fever** as the key feature of this patient's condition.
- In the context of this question asking about "his condition," the **temperature elevation is the most direct and measurable systemic change** presented.
*Increase in pH*
- An **increase in pH** (alkalosis) causes a **left shift** in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, **increasing hemoglobin's oxygen affinity**.
- This would hinder oxygen delivery to tissues, which is not beneficial during infection when tissue oxygen demand is elevated.
*Decrease in 2,3-DPG*
- A **decrease in 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG)** causes a **left shift** in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
- This increases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen, making oxygen release to tissues more difficult.
- During infection, 2,3-DPG levels typically remain stable or may increase slightly, not decrease.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 8: A male infant is born at 27 weeks following premature rupture of membranes and a precipitous labor to a G4P3 female. Given the speed of delivery steroids are not given. Shortly after delivery he develops respiratory distress and the decision is made to administer surfactant replacement therapy. While the components of the surfactant used in surfactant therapy may vary based on institution, what is the main component of pulmonary surfactant produced by type II pneumocytes?
- A. Cholesterol
- B. Protein S
- C. Surfactant-associated proteins
- D. Phospholipids (Correct Answer)
- E. Zinc finger protein
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Phospholipids***
- The main component of **pulmonary surfactant** produced by **type II pneumocytes** is **dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC)**, a type of **phospholipid**.
- These **phospholipids** reduce **alveolar surface tension**, preventing alveolar collapse at the end of expiration.
*Cholesterol*
- While **cholesterol** is present in biological membranes, it is a minor component of pulmonary surfactant and does not primarily determine its function.
- Its role is mainly in regulating the fluidity of the **surfactant film**, rather than reducing surface tension.
*Protein S*
- **Protein S** is a **vitamin K-dependent plasma protein** that functions as a **natural anticoagulant**; it is not a component of pulmonary surfactant.
- Its deficiency is associated with **thrombotic disorders**.
*Surfactant-associated proteins*
- **Surfactant-associated proteins (SPs)**, such as SP-A, SP-B, SP-C, and SP-D, are crucial for the **function and regulation** of pulmonary surfactant.
- However, they constitute a much smaller proportion by mass compared to **phospholipids**, which are the main structural and functional components.
*Zinc finger protein*
- **Zinc finger proteins** are a diverse class of proteins that bind to DNA, RNA, or other proteins and are involved in various cellular processes, including **gene regulation**.
- They are not a structural or functional component of **pulmonary surfactant**.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 9: A 30-year-old woman presents to clinic for a routine checkup. She reports that she is in good health but that she felt short of breath on her hiking and skiing trip to Colorado the week prior. She explains that this was the first time she has gone that high into the mountains and was slightly concerned for the first few days because she felt chronically short of breath. She reports a history of childhood asthma, but this experience did not feel the same. She was on the verge of seeking medical attention, but it resolved three days later, and she has felt fine ever since. What other listed physiological change results in a physiologic alteration similar to that which occurred in this patient?
- A. Increase in partial pressure of water in air
- B. Increase in blood pH
- C. Increase in concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide in blood
- D. Increase in concentration of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate in blood (Correct Answer)
- E. Decreased body temperature
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Increase in concentration of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate in blood***
- At high altitude, the body **increases 2,3-BPG production** as a key acclimatization mechanism over several days, which is why the patient's symptoms resolved after 3 days.
- Increased 2,3-BPG shifts the **oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right**, decreasing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen and facilitating **oxygen unloading at tissues**.
- This is one of the primary chronic adaptations to high altitude hypoxia, along with increased erythropoietin production.
*Increase in partial pressure of water in air*
- An increase in the partial pressure of water vapor in the air would decrease the partial pressure of inspired oxygen (PiO2 = FiO2 × (Patm - PH2O)).
- This would worsen hypoxia rather than represent an adaptive response to altitude.
*Decreased body temperature*
- Decreased body temperature shifts the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the **left**, increasing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.
- This would **impair oxygen unloading** at tissues, which is the opposite effect of increased 2,3-BPG.
- This is not a physiological response to high altitude.
*Increase in blood pH*
- An increase in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis) does occur acutely at high altitude due to hyperventilation in response to hypoxia.
- However, this shifts the curve to the **left** (Bohr effect), increasing oxygen affinity, which is the **opposite effect** of increased 2,3-BPG.
- While this occurs as an immediate response, the body compensates through renal bicarbonate excretion and increased 2,3-BPG production to maintain tissue oxygen delivery.
*Increase in concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide in blood*
- At high altitude, hyperventilation leads to **decreased CO2** (hypocapnia), not increased CO2.
- Increased CO2 would cause acidosis and shift the curve to the right (decreasing oxygen affinity), but this does not occur at high altitude.
- The opposite physiological change (decreased CO2) actually occurs.
Diving physiology US Medical PG Question 10: A scientist is working on creating synthetic hemoglobin that can be used to replace blood loss in humans. She therefore starts to study the behavior of this artificial hemoglobin in terms of its ability to bind oxygen. She begins by measuring the affinity between this synthetic hemoglobin and oxygen in a purified system before introducing modifications to this system. Specifically, she reduces the level of carbon dioxide in the system to mimic conditions within the lungs and plots an affinity curve. Which of the following should be observed in this artificial hemoglobin if it mimics the behavior of normal hemoglobin?
- A. No shift in the curve and increased oxygen binding
- B. Left-shifted curve and decreased oxygen binding
- C. Right-shifted curve and decreased oxygen binding
- D. Right-shifted curve and increased oxygen binding
- E. Left-shifted curve and increased oxygen binding (Correct Answer)
Diving physiology Explanation: ***Left-shifted curve and increased oxygen binding***
- A **left shift** in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve indicates an **increased affinity** of hemoglobin for oxygen. This occurs in the lungs where **low CO2** (and thus higher pH) and lower temperature promote oxygen binding.
- Reduced carbon dioxide levels mimic the conditions in the **lungs**, promoting oxygen loading onto hemoglobin for transport to tissues.
*No shift in the curve and increased oxygen binding*
- A **lack of shift** in the curve suggests that the synthetic hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is not changing in response to the altered CO2 levels, which would be abnormal.
- While increased oxygen binding is the goal in the lungs, it should be accompanied by a **left shift** reflecting the higher affinity.
*Left-shifted curve and decreased oxygen binding*
- A **left shift** indicates **increased oxygen affinity**, which would lead to **increased oxygen binding**, not decreased. These two concepts are contradictory.
- This option incorrectly couples a left shift (higher affinity) with decreased binding.
*Right-shifted curve and decreased oxygen binding*
- A **right shift** indicates **decreased oxygen affinity**, meaning hemoglobin releases oxygen more readily. This occurs in tissues where CO2 levels are high, not in the lungs where CO2 is low.
- Under conditions of low CO2, a right shift and decreased binding would be an inappropriate physiological response for oxygen loading in the lungs.
*Right-shifted curve and increased oxygen binding*
- A **right shift** signifies **decreased oxygen affinity**, which would naturally lead to **decreased oxygen binding**, not increased. These are conflicting outcomes.
- This combination of effects would impair oxygen loading in the lungs, making it unsuitable for a blood substitute.
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