Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 1: A 6-year-old boy and his parents present to the emergency department with high-grade fever, headache, and projectile vomiting. The boy was born at 39 weeks gestation via spontaneous vaginal delivery. He is up to date on all vaccines and is meeting all developmental milestones. Past medical history is noncontributory. He has had no sick contacts at school or at home. The family has not traveled out of the area recently. He likes school and playing videogames with his younger brother. Today, his blood pressure is 115/76 mm Hg, heart rate is 110/min, respiratory rate is 22/min, and temperature is 38.4°C (101.2°F). On physical exam, the child is disoriented. Kernig’s sign is positive. A head CT was performed followed by a lumbar puncture. Several aliquots of CSF were distributed throughout the lab. Cytology showed high counts of polymorphs, biochemistry showed low glucose and elevated protein levels, and a gram smear shows gram-positive lanceolate-shaped cocci alone and in pairs. A smear is prepared on blood agar in an aerobic environment and grows mucoid colonies with clearly defined edges and alpha hemolysis. On later evaluation they develop a ‘draughtsman’ appearance. Which one of the following is the most likely pathogen?
- A. Streptococcus pneumoniae (Correct Answer)
- B. Staphylococcus aureus
- C. Neisseria meningitidis
- D. Staphylococcus epidermidis
- E. Streptococcus agalactiae
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***Streptococcus pneumoniae***
- The CSF findings of **high polymorphs**, **low glucose**, and **elevated protein** are classic for bacterial meningitis. The Gram stain showing **Gram-positive, lanceolate-shaped cocci in pairs** is highly characteristic of *Streptococcus pneumoniae*.
- The growth of **mucoid colonies** with **alpha hemolysis** on blood agar in an aerobic environment, which later develop a **'draughtsman' appearance**, are further confirmatory characteristics of *S. pneumoniae*.
*Staphylococcus aureus*
- *Staphylococcus aureus* is a Gram-positive coccus but typically presents in **clusters** on Gram stain, not lanceolate pairs.
- While it can cause meningitis, it usually exhibits **beta-hemolysis** and is catalase-positive, unlike *S. pneumoniae*.
*Neisseria meningitidis*
- *Neisseria meningitidis* is a **Gram-negative diplococcus**, which would appear distinctly different on Gram stain compared to the described Gram-positive lanceolate cocci.
- Although it is a common cause of bacterial meningitis, its colonial morphology and Gram stain characteristics do not match the case.
*Staphylococcus epidermidis*
- *Staphylococcus epidermidis* is a **Gram-positive coccus in clusters**, similar to *S. aureus*, and is commonly a **skin commensal** or found in infections related to indwelling devices.
- It typically exhibits **gamma-hemolysis** (non-hemolytic) and is usually **coagulase-negative**, differentiating it from the alpha-hemolytic, 'draughtsman' appearing colonies described.
*Streptococcus agalactiae*
- *Streptococcus agalactiae* (**Group B Streptococcus**) is a Gram-positive coccus that typically grows in **chains** and causes **beta-hemolysis**, particularly in neonates.
- While it can cause meningitis, its characteristic hemolytic pattern and arrangement on Gram stain differ from the alpha-hemolytic, lanceolate-shaped cocci in pairs described.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 2: A 6-day-old newborn is brought to the emergency department by his mother due to a high fever that started last night. His mother says that he was born via an uneventful vaginal delivery at home at 38 weeks gestation and was doing fine up until yesterday when he became disinterested in breastfeeding and spit up several times. His temperature is 39.5°C (103.1°F), pulse is 155/min, respirations are 45/min, and O2 sats are 92% on room air. He is lethargic and minimally responsive to stimuli. While on his back, his head is quickly lifted towards his chest which causes his legs to flex. The mother had only a few prenatal care visits and none at the end of the pregnancy. What is the most likely source of this patients infection?
- A. Tick bite
- B. During birth (Correct Answer)
- C. Infection from surgery
- D. Contaminated food
- E. Mother’s roommate
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***During birth***
- The newborn's age (6 days old) and presentation with **fever**, **lethargy**, and **meningeal signs** (legs flexing upon lifting head, likely Brudzinski sign) are highly suggestive of **neonatal sepsis** or **meningitis**.
- Given the history of a home birth with limited prenatal care, the most probable source of infection would be vertical transmission **during passage through the birth canal**, especially if the mother was colonized with pathogens like Group B Streptococcus (GBS), E. coli, or had an untreated sexually transmitted infection.
*Tick bite*
- While tick-borne illnesses can cause fever, they are generally less common in this age group and the symptoms presented are more indicative of a widespread bacterial infection rather than a localized vector-borne illness.
- The neurological signs (meningeal irritation) are more consistent with meningitis, which is typically bacterial in newborns, rather than a common manifestation of a tick-borne disease in this age group.
*Infection from surgery*
- The patient had an **uneventful vaginal delivery at home**, meaning there was no surgical procedure involved, ruling out a surgical site infection.
- Surgical infections are typically seen after procedures like C-sections or circumcisions and would present differently.
*Contaminated food*
- A 6-day-old newborn is typically fed breast milk or formula and has no exposure to **solid or contaminated food** that would cause such an infection.
- Foodborne illnesses would usually present with prominent gastrointestinal symptoms like severe vomiting and diarrhea, which are not the primary features here.
*Mother’s roommate*
- While exposure to sick individuals can cause illness, the severe symptoms and rapid progression of the newborn's condition, along with the meningeal signs, point more towards a serious **vertical transmission during birth** rather than horizontal transmission from casual contact with a roommate.
- Diseases transmitted this way would also typically affect the respiratory tract before causing severe systemic illness.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 3: A 28-year-old female in the 2nd trimester of pregnancy is diagnosed with primary Toxoplasma gondii infection. Her physician fears that the fetus may be infected in utero. Which of the following are associated with T. gondii infection in neonates?
- A. Hutchinson’s teeth, saddle nose, short maxilla
- B. Deafness, seizures, petechial rash
- C. Hydrocephalus, chorioretinitis, intracranial calcifications (Correct Answer)
- D. Patent ductus arteriosus, cataracts, deafness
- E. Temporal encephalitis, vesicular lesions
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***Hydrocephalus, chorioretinitis, intracranial calcifications***
- These are the classic triad of symptoms (known as the **Sabin triad**) often associated with **congenital toxoplasmosis**.
- **Hydrocephalus** results from obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid flow, **chorioretinitis** can lead to vision loss, and **intracranial calcifications** are a hallmark of the infection's impact on the brain.
*Hutchinson’s teeth, saddle nose, short maxilla*
- These are characteristic features of **congenital syphilis**, not *Toxoplasma gondii* infection.
- **Hutchinson's triad** includes Hutchinson's teeth, interstitial keratitis, and sensorineural hearing loss in congenital syphilis.
*Deafness, seizures, petechial rash*
- While seizures can occur with severe congenital infections, this combination is more suggestive of **cytomegalovirus (CMV)** infection or **rubella**, which can cause petechial rash (blueberry muffin baby) and profound sensorineural deafness.
- *Toxoplasma gondii* does not typically cause a petechial rash as a primary symptom.
*Patent ductus arteriosus, cataracts, deafness*
- This constellation of symptoms is highly characteristic of **congenital rubella syndrome**.
- **Cardiac defects** (like patent ductus arteriosus), **ocular abnormalities** (cataracts), and **sensorineural deafness** are classical signs of rubella.
*Temporal encephalitis, vesicular lesions*
- **Temporal encephalitis** with vesicular lesions, particularly in a neonatal context, is a classic presentation of **congenital herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection**.
- *Toxoplasma gondii* can cause encephalitis, but not typically with vesicular lesions or a primary predilection for the temporal lobe in this specific clinical presentation.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 4: A 27-year-old woman, gravida 2, para 1, at 36 weeks' gestation comes to the physician for a prenatal visit. She feels well. Fetal movements are adequate. This is her 7th prenatal visit. She had an ultrasound scan performed 1 month ago that showed a live intrauterine pregnancy consistent with a 32-week gestation with no anomalies. She had a Pap smear performed 1 year ago, which was normal. Vital signs are within normal limits. Pelvic examination shows a uterus consistent in size with a 36-week gestation. Her blood group and type is A negative. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management?
- A. Transabdominal doppler ultrasonography
- B. Rh antibody testing
- C. Swab for GBS culture (Correct Answer)
- D. Serum PAPP-A and HCG levels
- E. Complete blood count
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***Swab for GBS culture***
- All pregnant women should be screened for **Group B Streptococcus (GBS)** between **36 weeks 0 days and 37 weeks 6 days** of gestation.
- A positive GBS culture requires **intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis** to prevent early-onset neonatal GBS disease.
*Transabdominal doppler ultrasonography*
- **Doppler ultrasonography** is primarily used to assess **fetal well-being** in cases of **fetal growth restriction**, preeclampsia, or other high-risk conditions.
- This patient has a **normal-sized uterus** and **adequate fetal movements**, indicating no immediate need for fetal Doppler assessment.
*Rh antibody testing*
- **Rh antibody testing** (indirect Coombs test) is performed early in pregnancy for Rh-negative women and typically repeated at **28 weeks' gestation** before anti-D immune globulin administration.
- Repeating this test at 36 weeks is not the most appropriate *next* step as the routine schedule for Rh immune globulin would typically be managed prior to this point.
*Serum PAPP-A and HCG levels*
- **Serum PAPP-A and HCG levels** are components of **first-trimester screening** for chromosomal abnormalities, performed between 11 and 14 weeks of gestation.
- At 36 weeks' gestation, these markers are not relevant for current fetal assessment.
*Complete blood count*
- A **complete blood count (CBC)** is routinely performed in the first trimester and often repeated in the **late second or early third trimester** (around 28 weeks) to check for anemia.
- While a CBC might be done as part of general prenatal care, it is not the most urgent or specifically indicated test at 36 weeks in the absence of symptoms.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 5: A 28-year-old primigravid woman at 36 weeks' gestation comes to the emergency department because of worsening pelvic pain for 2 hours. Three days ago, she had a burning sensation with urination that resolved spontaneously. She has nausea and has vomited fluid twice on her way to the hospital. She appears ill. Her temperature is 39.7°C (103.5°F), pulse is 125/min, respirations are 33/min, and blood pressure is 130/70 mm Hg. Abdominal examination shows diffuse tenderness. No contractions are felt. Speculum examination shows pooling of nonbloody, malodorous fluid in the vaginal vault. The cervix is not effaced or dilated. Laboratory studies show a hemoglobin concentration of 14 g/dL, a leukocyte count of 16,000/mm3, and a platelet count of 250,000/mm3. Fetal heart rate is 148/min and reactive with no decelerations. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management?
- A. Administer oral azithromycin and induce labor
- B. Administer intravenous ampicillin and gentamicin and perform C-section
- C. Administer intravenous ampicillin and gentamicin and induce labor (Correct Answer)
- D. Perform C-section
- E. Expectant management
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***Administer intravenous ampicillin and gentamicin and induce labor***
- This patient presents with signs of **chorioamnionitis** (fever, maternal tachycardia, uterine tenderness, malodorous amniotic fluid with ruptured membranes), necessitating immediate broad-spectrum antibiotics and delivery.
- **Induction of labor** is generally preferred over C-section for chorioamnionitis unless there are other obstetric indications for C-section, to minimize maternal morbidity and reduce overall fetal exposure to infection.
*Administer oral azithromycin and induce labor*
- **Oral azithromycin** is not appropriate for the acute management of chorioamnionitis, which requires broad-spectrum intravenous antibiotics due to the potential for severe maternal and fetal infection.
- While **induction of labor** is correct, the choice of antibiotic is inadequate for this severe infection
*Administer intravenous ampicillin and gentamicin and perform C-section*
- While **intravenous ampicillin and gentamicin** are appropriate antibiotics for chorioamnionitis, a **C-section** is not the standard primary management unless there's a specific obstetric indication (e.g., failed induction, fetal distress).
- Vaginal delivery is generally safer for the mother in cases of chorioamnionitis, as C-section increases the risk of **postpartum endometritis** and wound infection.
*Perform C-section*
- **C-section** alone without immediate antibiotic treatment would be inappropriate and dangerous given the active infection.
- A C-section is also not the first-line delivery method for chorioamnionitis unless other complications necessitate it.
*Expectant management*
- **Expectant management** is contraindicated in chorioamnionitis due to the high risk of severe maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality, including **sepsis**.
- Immediate intervention with antibiotics and delivery is crucial to prevent further progression of the infection.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 6: A male neonate is being examined by a pediatrician. His mother informs the doctor that she had a mild fever with rash, muscle pain, and swollen and tender lymph nodes during the second month of gestation. The boy was born at 39 weeks gestation via spontaneous vaginal delivery with no prenatal care. On physical examination, the neonate has normal vital signs. Retinal examination reveals the findings shown in the image. Which of the following congenital heart defects is most likely to be present in this neonate?
- A. Double outlet right ventricle
- B. Atrial septal defect
- C. Patent ductus arteriosus (Correct Answer)
- D. Ventricular septal defect
- E. Tetralogy of Fallot
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***Patent ductus arteriosus***
- This neonate has **congenital rubella syndrome (CRS)** based on maternal symptoms during the first trimester (fever, rash, lymphadenopathy) and the characteristic **"salt and pepper" retinopathy** shown on retinal examination
- **PDA is the most common cardiac defect** associated with CRS, occurring in approximately 50-85% of affected infants
- Other cardiac manifestations of CRS include peripheral pulmonary artery stenosis, but PDA predominates
- The classic triad of CRS includes cardiac defects, ocular abnormalities (cataracts, glaucoma, retinopathy), and sensorineural deafness
*Double outlet right ventricle*
- This is a **conotruncal anomaly** typically presenting with cyanosis in the neonatal period
- Not associated with maternal rubella infection or congenital rubella syndrome
- Would present with abnormal ventricular anatomy and significant hemodynamic compromise
*Atrial septal defect*
- While ASD is a common congenital heart defect, it is **not characteristically associated with CRS**
- Much less frequently linked to maternal viral infections compared to PDA
- Often asymptomatic in the neonatal period and detected later in childhood
*Ventricular septal defect*
- VSD is less commonly associated with **congenital rubella syndrome** compared to PDA
- When present, typically manifests with a holosystolic murmur at the left lower sternal border
- Can occur with maternal infections but is not the predominant cardiac finding in CRS
*Tetralogy of Fallot*
- Consists of four anatomic abnormalities: VSD, pulmonary stenosis, overriding aorta, and right ventricular hypertrophy
- Presents with **cyanosis** ("tet spells") and is not specifically linked to maternal rubella infection
- Not part of the congenital rubella syndrome spectrum
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 7: A mother delivers in a rural area under the guidance of a skilled care attendant. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding the care provided by the skilled care attendant at birth?
- A. Start breastfeeding as early as possible
- B. Cover the baby's head and body
- C. Bathe the baby with warm water (Correct Answer)
- D. Clear the eyes with a sterile swab
- E. Dry the baby thoroughly and stimulate breathing
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***Bathe the baby with warm water***
- **Delaying the first bath** for at least 6-24 hours after birth is recommended to prevent **hypothermia** and promote **skin-to-skin contact** for bonding and breastfeeding.
- Early bathing can remove **vernix caseosa**, which provides natural antimicrobial protection and moisturization to the newborn's skin.
*Start breastfeeding as early as possible*
- **Early initiation of breastfeeding**, ideally within the first hour of birth, is crucial for both mother and baby.
- It promotes **uterine contractions** to prevent **postpartum hemorrhage** and provides the newborn with **colostrum**, rich in antibodies.
*Cover the baby's head and body*
- Covering the newborn's head and body is essential to prevent **heat loss** and maintain a stable **body temperature**, immediately after birth.
- Newborns are highly susceptible to **hypothermia** due to their large surface area to mass ratio and immature thermoregulation.
*Clear the eyes with a sterile swab*
- Clearing the newborn's eyes with a sterile swab is a standard part of immediate newborn care to remove any **mucus or blood** that might have entered during delivery.
- This helps prevent **ophthalmia neonatorum**, especially if the mother has an infection like gonorrhea or chlamydia.
*Dry the baby thoroughly and stimulate breathing*
- **Drying the baby immediately** after birth is a critical first step in newborn resuscitation and care.
- It helps prevent **hypothermia** and provides **tactile stimulation** to initiate breathing and crying, which is essential for transitioning from fetal to neonatal circulation.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 8: A 9-month-old boy is brought to the physician because of abnormal crawling and inability to sit without support. A 2nd-trimester urinary tract infection that required antibiotic use and a spontaneous preterm birth via vaginal delivery at 36 weeks’ gestation both complicated the mother’s pregnancy. Physical examination shows a scissoring posture of the legs when the child is suspended by the axillae. Examination of the lower extremities shows brisk tendon reflexes, ankle clonus, and upward plantar reflexes bilaterally. When encouraged by his mother, the infant crawls forward by using normal reciprocal movements of his arms, while his legs drag behind. A brain MRI shows scarring and atrophy in the white matter around the ventricles with ventricular enlargement. Which of the following is most likely associated with the findings in this child?
- A. Antenatal injury
- B. Genetic defect
- C. Postnatal head trauma
- D. Intrapartum asphyxia
- E. Preterm birth (Correct Answer)
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***Preterm birth***
- The combination of **abnormal crawling**, **inability to sit without support**, **scissoring posture**, **spasticity**, and **periventricular white matter scarring** (periventricular leukomalacia, PVL) are classic signs of **spastic cerebral palsy**.
- **Preterm birth** is the most significant risk factor for **PVL** and the subsequent development of spastic cerebral palsy, particularly spastic diplegia.
- The **periventricular white matter** in preterm infants (especially <34 weeks, but also late preterm at 34-37 weeks) is highly vulnerable to ischemic injury due to immature vascular development and susceptibility to hypoxic-ischemic insults during the perinatal period.
- This infant was born at **36 weeks (late preterm)**, which is a known risk factor for PVL and cerebral palsy.
*Antenatal injury*
- While brain injury can occur in the antenatal period, the specific finding of **periventricular leukomalacia** is most characteristically associated with **prematurity** and perinatal/early postnatal events rather than purely antenatal injury.
- The term "antenatal injury" is too vague and doesn't capture the specific pathophysiology of PVL, which occurs around the time of birth in vulnerable preterm infants.
*Genetic defect*
- While some forms of cerebral palsy can have a genetic component, the clinical picture here, especially the MRI findings of **periventricular leukomalacia**, strongly points to an acquired brain injury rather than a primary genetic defect.
- Genetic conditions typically present with more widespread or specific neurodevelopmental abnormalities, often without the focal periventricular white matter scarring seen in PVL.
*Postnatal head trauma*
- **Postnatal head trauma** would typically present with a history of injury and more acute neurological deficits or focal lesions on imaging (e.g., subdural hematoma, contusions), rather than the characteristic **periventricular white matter scarring** observed here.
- The presentation is consistent with a developmental disorder from perinatal brain injury, not an acute traumatic event from infancy.
*Intrapartum asphyxia*
- **Intrapartum asphyxia** (hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy) in term infants characteristically leads to damage in the **deep grey matter** (e.g., basal ganglia, thalamus) and cortex, not primarily **periventricular white matter** as seen here.
- The MRI findings of **periventricular leukomalacia** are pathognomonic for **prematurity-related injury**, not term asphyxia.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 9: A 34-year-old man with a 2-year history of rheumatoid arthritis is being evaluated on a follow-up visit. He is currently on methotrexate and celecoxib for pain management and has shown a good response until now. However, on this visit, he mentions that the morning stiffness has been getting progressively worse. On physical examination, both his wrists are erythematous and swollen, nodules on his elbows are also noted. Rheumatoid factor is 30 (normal reference values: < 15 IU/mL), ESR is 50 mm/h, anti-citrullinated protein antibodies is 55 (normal reference values: < 20). What is the next best step in the management of this patient?
- A. Sulfasalazine
- B. Adalimumab monotherapy
- C. Methotrexate and Corticosteroids
- D. Methotrexate and Infliximab (Correct Answer)
- E. Infliximab monotherapy
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: **Methotrexate and Infliximab**
- The patient is experiencing a **flare-up of rheumatoid arthritis** despite being on methotrexate, indicated by worsening morning stiffness, active synovitis (erythematous and swollen wrists), elevated ESR, and positive rheumatoid factor and anti-CCP. This suggests a need for more aggressive therapy, and adding a **biologic agent like infliximab (an anti-TNF agent)** to methotrexate is a standard approach for moderate to severe RA that is not adequately controlled by methotrexate monotherapy.
- Combination therapy with **methotrexate and a biologic DMARD** (e.g., TNF inhibitors like infliximab) has been shown to be more effective than monotherapy for controlling disease activity and preventing joint damage in refractory RA.
*Sulfasalazine*
- **Sulfasalazine** is a conventional synthetic DMARD that is generally used as a **first-line agent or in combination therapy** for mild to moderate RA.
- Given the patient's ongoing active disease despite methotrexate and the severity of his symptoms, sulfasalazine is unlikely to be sufficient to achieve disease control.
*Adalimumab monotherapy*
- While adalimumab (another anti-TNF biologic) is an effective treatment for RA, **biologic monotherapy is generally less effective** than combination therapy with methotrexate.
- Current guidelines and clinical practice favor combining biologic DMARDs with methotrexate for optimal outcomes in RA management, especially in patients with active disease.
*Methotrexate and Corticosteroids*
- **Corticosteroids** are effective in rapidly reducing inflammation and can be used for **short-term management of RA flares**.
- However, corticosteroids are not recommended for long-term use due to significant side effects and do not address the underlying disease progression as comprehensively as biologic DMARDs in patients refractory to methotrexate.
*Infliximab monotherapy*
- Similar to adalimumab monotherapy, **infliximab is typically more effective when combined with methotrexate**.
- Using infliximab alone would be a less optimal choice for this patient whose disease is clearly not controlled by methotrexate, as it may lead to a suboptimal response and potentially increase the risk of developing anti-drug antibodies.
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk US Medical PG Question 10: A 47-year-old African-American woman presents to her primary care physician for a general checkup appointment. She works as a middle school teacher and has a 25 pack-year smoking history. She has a body mass index (BMI) of 22 kg/m^2 and is a vegetarian. Her last menstrual period was 1 week ago. Her current medications include oral contraceptive pills. Which of the following is a risk factor for osteoporosis in this patient?
- A. Smoking history (Correct Answer)
- B. Race
- C. Estrogen therapy
- D. Age
- E. Body mass index
Maternal factors and neonatal infection risk Explanation: ***Smoking history***
- **Smoking** is a well-established risk factor for osteoporosis due to its negative effects on bone density and **calcium absorption**.
- Smokers have lower bone density and increased fracture risk due to direct toxic effects on osteoblasts and accelerated estrogen metabolism.
*Race*
- **African-American women** typically have higher bone mineral density and a lower risk of osteoporosis compared to Caucasians and Asians.
- This patient's racial background is considered a protective factor, not a risk factor, for osteoporosis.
*Estrogen therapy*
- **Oral contraceptive pills** contain estrogen, which helps maintain bone density and is protective against osteoporosis.
- Estrogen deficiency, not estrogen therapy, is a risk factor for osteoporosis, especially after menopause.
*Age*
- While **advancing age** is a significant risk factor for osteoporosis, this patient is 47 years old and still having regular menstrual periods, indicating pre-menopausal status.
- The effects of age on bone density become more pronounced after menopause due to declining estrogen levels.
*Body mass index*
- A **BMI of 22 kg/m^2** is within the normal range, and higher BMI is generally associated with greater bone density due to increased weight bearing and higher estrogen levels in adipose tissue.
- Being underweight (low BMI) is a risk factor for osteoporosis, as it often correlates with poorer nutritional status and lower bone mass.
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