HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for HBV/HCV co-infection. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 1: A 60-year-old rock musician presents to the office because he has been feeling increasingly tired for the past 6 months. He has a history of intravenous drug use and alcohol abuse. He states that he feels quite tired, but he otherwise has no complaints. Physical examination is noncontributory. His laboratory values are normal other than moderately elevated liver enzymes. Which of the following additional tests should you order first?
- A. Hepatitis C virus antibodies (Correct Answer)
- B. Hepatitis B surface antigen
- C. Hepatitis E virus-specific IgM antibodies
- D. Hepatitis D virus-specific IgG antibody
- E. Hepatitis A virus-specific IgM antibodies
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Hepatitis C virus antibodies***
- The patient's history of **intravenous drug use** and **chronic fatigue** with **elevated liver enzymes** strongly suggests chronic viral hepatitis, with hepatitis C being the most common blood-borne infection in persons with IVDU history.
- **Hepatitis C** is the **most prevalent chronic viral hepatitis** in the United States among persons with history of injection drug use, with transmission efficiency via needle sharing being very high.
- Hepatitis C often has a **long asymptomatic phase** (decades) before symptoms like fatigue and liver damage become apparent, making antibody testing the appropriate initial screen.
- While both HBV and HCV should ultimately be screened in this patient, **HCV prevalence is significantly higher** in the IVDU population, making it the priority initial test.
*Hepatitis B surface antigen*
- While **hepatitis B** can also be transmitted via intravenous drug use and cause chronic liver disease, **hepatitis C is more prevalent** in persons with IVDU history in the United States.
- **HBsAg** is used to detect active hepatitis B infection and should also be ordered, but given resource constraints and the clinical context, **anti-HCV is the higher-yield initial test**.
- Many IVDU patients have been vaccinated against HBV, further reducing its likelihood compared to HCV (for which no vaccine exists).
*Hepatitis E virus-specific IgM antibodies*
- **Hepatitis E** is typically transmitted via the **fecal-oral route** (contaminated water) and usually causes **acute, self-limiting hepatitis**, not chronic insidious fatigue and liver enzyme elevation in a Western patient.
- **IgM antibodies** would indicate an acute infection, which is less likely given the 6-month duration of symptoms.
- HEV rarely causes chronic infection except in immunocompromised patients.
*Hepatitis D virus-specific IgG antibody*
- **Hepatitis D** requires an existing **hepatitis B infection** to replicate (it's a satellite virus), meaning you would first need to confirm chronic hepatitis B before testing for HDV.
- While HDV can cause severe liver disease and is transmitted via blood exposure, it's not the initial test to pursue without evidence of HBV co-infection.
*Hepatitis A virus-specific IgM antibodies*
- **Hepatitis A** is transmitted via the **fecal-oral route** and causes an **acute, self-limiting infection** with complete resolution, rarely leading to chronic liver disease or persistent fatigue over 6 months.
- **IgM antibodies** are indicative of acute infection, which contradicts the chronic nature of the patient's symptoms.
- HAV does not cause chronic hepatitis.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 2: A 60-year-old man comes to the physician’s office with jaundice. Liver ultrasound reveals a shrunken liver and biopsy reveals cirrhosis. Hepatitis serologies are below:
Anti-HAV: negative
HBsAg: negative
HBsAb: positive
HBeAg: negative
Anti-HBe: negative
Anti-HBc: negative
Anti-HCV: positive
The hepatitis C viral load is 1,000,000 copies/mL. The patient is started on an antiviral regimen including sofosbuvir. What is the mechanism of action of this drug?
- A. Inhibits reverse transcriptase
- B. Inhibits integrase
- C. Inhibits synthesis of DNA-dependent DNA polymerase
- D. Inhibits RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (Correct Answer)
- E. Inhibits hepatitis C protease
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Inhibits RNA-dependent RNA polymerase***
- Sofosbuvir is a **nucleotide analog** that targets the **HCV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (NS5B)**, essential for viral replication.
- By inhibiting NS5B, it acts as a **chain terminator**, preventing the synthesis of new viral RNA strands.
*Inhibits reverse transcriptase*
- This mechanism is characteristic of drugs used to treat **HIV infection**, as reverse transcriptase is an enzyme found in retroviruses.
- Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an **RNA virus** that replicates via an RNA intermediate, not DNA, and thus does not utilize reverse transcriptase.
*Inhibits integrase*
- Integrase inhibitors are a class of drugs primarily used in the treatment of **HIV infection**, preventing the viral DNA from integrating into the host genome.
- HCV replication does not involve an integration step into the host DNA, making this mechanism irrelevant for HCV treatment.
*Inhibits synthesis of DNA-dependent DNA polymerase*
- Inhibition of DNA-dependent DNA polymerase primarily targets organisms that replicate their DNA, such as **herpesviruses** or host cell processes.
- HCV is an RNA virus and does not synthesize or rely on a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase for its replication cycle.
*Inhibits hepatitis C protease*
- While **protease inhibitors (e.g., -previr drugs)** are an important class of anti-HCV drugs, sofosbuvir specifically targets the viral **RNA polymerase (NS5B)**.
- Protease inhibitors block the **NS3/4A protease**, which is responsible for cleaving the large HCV polyprotein into functional proteins.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 3: A 32-year-old woman comes to the physician because of a 3-month history of fatigue and myalgia. Over the past month, she has had intermittent episodes of nausea. She has a history of intravenous drug use, but she has not used illicit drugs for the past five years. She has smoked one pack of cigarettes daily for 14 years and drinks one alcoholic beverage daily. She takes no medications. Her last visit to a physician was 4 years ago. Her temperature is 37°C (98.6°F), pulse is 90/min, respirations are 20/min, and blood pressure is 110/70 mm Hg. Physical examination shows jaundice and hepatosplenomegaly. There are also blisters and erosions on the dorsum of both hands. The remainder of the examination shows no abnormalities. Laboratory studies show:
Hemoglobin 12 g/dL
Leukocyte count 8,300/mm3
Platelet count 250,000/mm3
Serum
Glucose 170 mg/dL
Albumin 3.0 g/dL
Total bilirubin 2.2 mg/dL
Alkaline phosphatase 80 U/L
AST 92 U/L
ALT 76 U/L
Hepatitis B surface antigen negative
Hepatitis B surface antibody positive
Hepatitis B core antibody positive
Hepatitis C antibody positive
Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in diagnosis?
- A. PCR for viral DNA
- B. Western blot for HIV
- C. Serology for anti-HAV IgM
- D. PCR for viral RNA (Correct Answer)
- E. Liver biopsy
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Correct: PCR for viral RNA***
- The patient has high suspicion for **chronic hepatitis C infection** due to a history of intravenous drug use, the presence of **fatigue**, **myalgia**, **jaundice**, hepatosplenomegaly, and **elevated liver enzymes (AST and ALT)**
- The **blisters and erosions on the dorsum of both hands** are highly suggestive of **porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT)**, a well-established complication of chronic hepatitis C caused by hepatic uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase deficiency
- The positive **Hepatitis C antibody** indicates exposure to HCV, but does not distinguish between acute, chronic, or resolved infection
- **PCR for viral RNA (HCV RNA)** is required to confirm **active viral replication** and diagnose current hepatitis C infection, which is crucial for treatment decisions
- The elevated glucose (170 mg/dL) may also represent hepatogenous diabetes related to chronic liver disease
*Incorrect: PCR for viral DNA*
- This test is primarily used for diagnosing active infections caused by **DNA viruses**, such as **hepatitis B** (HBV DNA) or cytomegalovirus
- The patient's hepatitis B serology indicates **past infection with immunity** (HBsAg negative, HBsAb positive, HBcAb positive), so HBV DNA testing is not indicated
- The clinical picture points toward HCV (an RNA virus), not a DNA virus
*Incorrect: Western blot for HIV*
- While the patient has a history of intravenous drug use (a risk factor for HIV), initial HIV screening is done with a **fourth-generation antigen/antibody combination assay**, not Western blot
- **Western blot** is a confirmatory test used only when initial HIV screening tests are reactive
- HIV testing may be appropriate given her risk factors, but it does not address the most pressing concern of active hepatitis C infection with complications (PCT)
*Incorrect: Serology for anti-HAV IgM*
- **Anti-HAV IgM** indicates **acute hepatitis A infection**, typically transmitted via the fecal-oral route
- The patient's symptoms, risk factors (IV drug use), positive HCV antibody, and characteristic skin findings (PCT) are not consistent with hepatitis A as the primary diagnosis
- Hepatitis A would not explain the chronic nature of symptoms or the skin manifestations
*Incorrect: Liver biopsy*
- **Liver biopsy** is an invasive procedure used to assess the **extent of liver damage**, inflammation, and fibrosis/cirrhosis after diagnosis of liver disease has been established
- It is not the most appropriate initial step to confirm **active viral replication**; PCR for HCV RNA should be performed first to establish that there is ongoing infection
- Once active HCV is confirmed, non-invasive methods (e.g., FibroScan, serum markers) are often preferred over biopsy for staging liver fibrosis
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 4: An epidemiologist is evaluating the efficacy of Noxbinle in preventing HCC deaths at the population level. A clinical trial shows that over 5 years, the mortality rate from HCC was 25% in the control group and 15% in patients treated with Noxbinle 100 mg daily. Based on this data, how many patients need to be treated with Noxbinle 100 mg to prevent, on average, one death from HCC?
- A. 20
- B. 73
- C. 10 (Correct Answer)
- D. 50
- E. 100
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***10***
- The **number needed to treat (NNT)** is calculated by first finding the **absolute risk reduction (ARR)**.
- **ARR** = Risk in control group - Risk in treatment group = 25% - 15% = **10%** (or 0.10).
- **NNT = 1 / ARR** = 1 / 0.10 = **10 patients**.
- This means that **10 patients must be treated with Noxbinle to prevent one death from HCC** over 5 years.
*20*
- This would result from an ARR of 5% (1/0.05 = 20), which is not supported by the data.
- May arise from miscalculating the risk difference or incorrectly halving the actual ARR.
*73*
- This value does not correspond to any standard calculation of NNT from the given mortality rates.
- May result from confusion with other epidemiological measures or calculation error.
*50*
- This would correspond to an ARR of 2% (1/0.02 = 50), which significantly underestimates the actual risk reduction.
- Could result from incorrectly calculating the difference as a proportion rather than absolute percentage points.
*100*
- This would correspond to an ARR of 1% (1/0.01 = 100), grossly underestimating the treatment benefit.
- May result from confusing ARR with relative risk reduction or other calculation errors.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 5: A 45-year-old diabetic man presents to your office for routine follow-up. One year ago, the patient’s hemoglobin A1C was 7.2% and the patient was encouraged to modify his diet and increase exercise. Six months ago, the patient’s HA1C was 7.3%, and you initiated metformin. Today, the patient has no complaints. For which of the following co-morbidities would it be acceptable to continue metformin?
- A. Prior hospitalization for alcoholic hepatitis
- B. Hepatitis C infection
- C. Mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Correct Answer)
- D. Headache and family history of brain aneurysms requiring CT angiography
- E. Recent diagnosis of NYHA Class II congestive heart failure
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease***
- **Metformin is safe** in patients with **stable, mild COPD** as respiratory disease alone is **not a contraindication** to metformin use.
- COPD does not increase the risk of **lactic acidosis**, the primary safety concern with metformin, as long as tissue perfusion and renal function are adequate.
- The benefits of metformin for glycemic control are maintained without additional respiratory risks.
*Prior hospitalization for alcoholic hepatitis*
- **Metformin is contraindicated** in **severe or decompensated liver disease** due to increased risk of **lactic acidosis**.
- A history of **alcoholic hepatitis requiring hospitalization** suggests significant hepatic impairment that could compromise lactate clearance.
- The liver plays a key role in lactate metabolism, and impaired function substantially increases lactic acidosis risk.
*Hepatitis C infection*
- While **chronic compensated liver disease** (including Hepatitis C) is no longer considered an absolute contraindication per updated FDA guidance (2016-2017), the presence of Hepatitis C raises concerns about **potential liver dysfunction**.
- Without confirmation of **normal liver function and preserved renal function**, metformin use requires caution.
- Metformin should be avoided if there is evidence of **hepatic decompensation** or significantly elevated transaminases.
*Headache and family history of brain aneurysms requiring CT angiography*
- The concern is the **IV contrast dye** used during **CT angiography**, which can cause **acute kidney injury** in susceptible patients.
- Traditional guidance recommends **holding metformin** before contrast procedures and for 48 hours after to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy and subsequent **lactic acidosis**.
- Though recent evidence suggests this risk is lower with modern iso-osmolar contrast and preserved renal function, temporary discontinuation remains standard practice for patient safety.
*Recent diagnosis of NYHA Class II congestive heart failure*
- Historically, **CHF was considered a contraindication** to metformin due to concerns about lactic acidosis from poor tissue perfusion.
- However, current evidence and guidelines (2020s) demonstrate that metformin is **generally safe and may be beneficial** in **stable NYHA Class II-III CHF** with preserved renal function.
- The qualifier "**recent diagnosis**" suggests a potentially **unstable period** where cautious monitoring is warranted, making this scenario less clearly acceptable for continuation without further clinical assessment and stability confirmation.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 6: A 57-year-old man comes to the physician because of generalized malaise, yellowish discoloration of the eyes, and pruritus on the back of his hands that worsens when exposed to sunlight for the past several months. He has not seen a physician in 15 years. Physical examination shows scleral icterus and mild jaundice. There is a purpuric rash with several small vesicles and hyperpigmented lesions on the dorsum of both hands. The causal pathogen of this patient's underlying condition was most likely acquired in which of the following ways?
- A. Ingestion of raw shellfish
- B. Inhalation of spores
- C. Needlestick injury (Correct Answer)
- D. Bathing in freshwater
- E. Sexual contact
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Needlestick injury***
- The jaundice, scleral icterus, pruritus, and **purpuric rash worsened by sunlight** (suggesting **Porphyria Cutanea Tarda**) are highly indicative of **chronic Hepatitis C virus infection**.
- **Hepatitis C** is primarily transmitted through **blood-to-blood contact**, with **needlestick injuries** and intravenous drug use being the most common routes.
*Ingestion of raw shellfish*
- **Hepatitis A virus** and **Vibrio vulnificus** can be acquired this way, but they typically cause acute, self-limiting illness or severe sepsis, respectively, not chronic liver disease with porphyria.
- **Hepatitis A** does not lead to chronic hepatitis or the dermatological manifestations described.
*Inhalation of spores*
- **Inhalation of spores** is associated with fungal infections like **histoplasmosis** or **coccidioidomycosis**, which do not typically cause chronic hepatitis, jaundice, pruritus, or porphyria cutanea tarda.
- These infections primarily affect the lungs, though disseminated forms can occur, they do not match the presented symptoms.
*Bathing in freshwater*
- **Bathing in freshwater** can transmit pathogens like **Leptospira** or **Schistosoma**, causing leptospirosis or schistosomiasis, respectively.
- These infections present with different clinical pictures and are not associated with chronic hepatitis, jaundice, or porphyria cutanea tarda.
*Sexual contact*
- While **Hepatitis C** can be transmitted sexually, this route is significantly **less efficient** than blood-to-blood contact.
- **Hepatitis B** is more commonly associated with sexual transmission and can also cause chronic liver disease, but the presence of **Porphyria Cutanea Tarda** is a characteristic extrahepatic manifestation strongly associated with **chronic Hepatitis C infection**.
- Given the clinical presentation, **needlestick injury or intravenous drug use** (blood-borne transmission) is the most likely route of HCV acquisition.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 7: A 35-year-old man with no known past medical history presents to his physician because he is applying for a job as a healthcare worker, which requires screening for the hepatitis B virus (HBV). The patient states that he is in good health and denies any symptoms. His vital signs and physical exam are unremarkable. Labs are drawn, and the patient's HBV serology shows the following:
HBsAg: positive
anti-HBsAg antibody: negative
anti-HBcAg IgM: negative
anti-HBcAg IgG: positive
HBeAg: negative
anti-HBeAg antibody: positive
Which of the following best describes this patient's results?
- A. Immune due to previous infection
- B. Chronically infected, low infectivity (Correct Answer)
- C. Immune due to previous vaccination
- D. Acutely infected
- E. Chronically infected, high infectivity
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Chronically infected, low infectivity***
- The presence of **HBsAg positive** for more than 6 months indicates **chronic HBV infection**. The presence of **anti-HBeAg antibody** and **negative HBeAg** suggests **low viral replication activity** and thus low infectivity.
- **HBeAg negativity** along with positivity for **HBV DNA** (if tested, though not provided here) would further differentiate this state as **"HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B,"** which typically implies lower, but still present, infectivity compared to HBeAg-positive chronic infection.
*Immune due to previous infection*
- Immunity due to previous infection is characterized by **negative HBsAg** and **positive anti-HBsAg antibody**, along with **positive anti-HBcAg IgG**.
- This patient, however, is **HBsAg positive** and **anti-HBsAg antibody negative**, ruling out resolved infection.
*Immune due to previous vaccination*
- Immunity due to vaccination is characterized by **negative HBsAg**, **positive anti-HBsAg antibody**, and **negative anti-HBcAg antibody** (both IgM and IgG).
- This patient has **positive HBsAg** and **positive anti-HBcAg IgG**, indicating either current or past infection, not vaccination-induced immunity.
*Acutely infected*
- **Acute infection** is characterized by **positive HBsAg**, **negative anti-HBsAg antibody**, and typically **positive anti-HBcAg IgM**.
- This patient has **negative anti-HBcAg IgM**, which makes acute infection unlikely, as IgM antibodies are present early in acute infection.
*Chronically infected, high infectivity*
- **High infectivity** in chronic HBV infection is typically indicated by **positive HBsAg** and **positive HBeAg**, often with high levels of HBV DNA.
- This patient is **HBeAg negative** and **anti-HBeAg antibody positive**, indicating a lower level of viral replication and thus lower infectivity.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 8: A 30-year-old woman presents to the clinic because of fever, joint pain, and a rash on her lower extremities. She admits to intravenous drug use. Physical examination reveals palpable petechiae and purpura on her lower extremities. Laboratory results reveal a negative antinuclear antibody, positive rheumatoid factor, and positive serum cryoglobulins. Which of the following underlying conditions in this patient is responsible for these findings?
- A. Dermatomyositis
- B. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
- C. Hepatitis C infection (Correct Answer)
- D. HIV infection
- E. Hepatitis B infection
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Hepatitis C infection***
- The combination of **intravenous drug use**, **fever**, **joint pain**, **palpable purpura**, **positive rheumatoid factor**, and **positive serum cryoglobulins** is highly suggestive of **mixed cryoglobulinemia**, which is most commonly associated with chronic **Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection**.
- **Cryoglobulinemia** is a systemic vasculitis caused by immune complex deposition, a common extrahepatic manifestation of HCV.
*Dermatomyositis*
- Characterized by **proximal muscle weakness** and characteristic skin rashes (e.g., **Gottron's papules**, **heliotrope rash**), which are not described here.
- While dermatomyositis can be associated with inflammatory markers, it typically does not present with palpable purpura or positive cryoglobulins.
*Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)*
- While SLE can cause **fever**, **arthralgia**, and a **rash**, the patient's **negative antinuclear antibody (ANA)** makes SLE highly unlikely.
- **Cryoglobulinemia** is rare in SLE, and the specific finding of palpable purpura points away from typical SLE rashes.
*HIV infection*
- HIV can cause a variety of skin lesions and arthralgias, but **palpable purpura** and **mixed cryoglobulinemia** are not its primary or most common manifestations.
- While **rheumatoid factor** can be positive in HIV, the overall clinical picture strongly favors HCV-associated cryoglobulinemia.
*Hepatitis B infection*
- Hepatitis B can be associated with **vasculitis** (e.g., **polyarteritis nodosa**) and immune complex-mediated disease.
- However, **mixed cryoglobulinemia**, characterized by the specific combination of symptoms and laboratory findings presented, is overwhelmingly more associated with **Hepatitis C** than Hepatitis B.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 9: Two viruses, X and Y, infect the same cell and begin to reproduce within the cell. As a result of the co-infection, some viruses are produced where the genome of Y is surrounded by the nucleocapsid of X and vice versa with the genome of X and nucleocapsid of Y. When the virus containing genome X surrounded by the nucleocapsid of Y infects another cell, what is the most likely outcome?
- A. Virions containing genome Y and nucleocapsid Y will be produced
- B. No virions will be produced
- C. Virions containing genome X and nucleocapsid Y will be produced
- D. Virions containing genome Y and nucleocapsid X will be produced
- E. Virions containing genome X and nucleocapsid X will be produced (Correct Answer)
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Virions containing genome X and nucleocapsid X will be produced***
- The virus containing **genome X** surrounded by **nucleocapsid Y** is a pseudotype. During the infection of a new cell, the **genome X** will direct the synthesis of new viral components, including **nucleocapsid X**.
- Since the genetic material (genome X) dictates the production of viral proteins, the new virions will be genetically identical to virus X, thus containing its own genome and nucleocapsid.
*Virions containing genome Y and nucleocapsid Y will be produced*
- This is incorrect because the infecting particle carried **genome X**, not genome Y.
- The genetic information encoded in the genome determines the type of progeny viruses produced.
*No virions will be produced*
- This is unlikely as the pseudotyped virus is capable of infection and delivery of a functional genome into the host cell.
- The cell is presumed to be permissive for virus replication.
*Virions containing genome X and nucleocapsid Y will be produced*
- This would only happen if the **nucleocapsid Y** was somehow replicated independently of its original genome, which is not how viral replication works.
- The progeny nucleocapsids are always encoded by the genome that is replicating within the cell.
*Virions containing genome Y and nucleocapsid X will be produced*
- This is incorrect. The infecting virus introduced **genome X** into the cell, not genome Y.
- The genetic material delivered determines the type of viral particles that will be synthesized.
HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG Question 10: A group of researchers conducted various studies on hepatitis C incidence and prevalence. They noticed that there is a high prevalence of hepatitis C in third-world countries, where it has a significant impact on the quality of life of the infected individual. The research group made several attempts to produce a vaccine that prevents hepatitis C infection but all attempts failed. Which of the following would most likely be the reason for the failure to produce a vaccine?
- A. Non-DNA genome
- B. Tolerance
- C. Antigenic mimicry
- D. Polysaccharide envelope
- E. Antigenic variation (Correct Answer)
HBV/HCV co-infection Explanation: ***Antigenic variation***
- The **hepatitis C virus (HCV)** undergoes rapid **antigenic variation**, particularly in its envelope glycoproteins, which allows it to evade the host immune system.
- This high mutation rate presents a significant challenge for vaccine development, as a vaccine designed against one viral strain may not be effective against others.
*Non-DNA genome*
- While HCV is an **RNA virus** (non-DNA genome), this characteristic alone does not inherently prevent vaccine development; many effective RNA virus vaccines exist (e.g., measles, mumps).
- The type of genome is less critical than its stability and the virus's ability to mutate rapidly.
*Tolerance*
- **Immune tolerance** occurs when the immune system fails to respond to an antigen, often due to chronic exposure. While relevant in chronic HCV infection, it's not the primary reason for vaccine failure.
- The goal of a vaccine is to induce an effective immune response before tolerance can set in.
*Antigenic mimicry*
- **Antigenic mimicry** involves a pathogen's antigens resembling host antigens, potentially leading to autoimmune responses or immune evasion.
- While it can be a factor in some chronic infections, the rapid, diverse changes in HCV's surface antigens are a more prominent obstacle to vaccine design.
*Polysaccharide envelope*
- HCV is an **enveloped virus**, but its envelope is composed of **lipoproteins** with viral glycoproteins, not a polysaccharide capsule.
- Polysaccharide capsules are a feature of some bacteria (e.g., Streptococcus pneumoniae) and fungi, and while they can pose vaccine challenges, they are not relevant to HCV.
More HBV/HCV co-infection US Medical PG questions available in the OnCourse app. Practice MCQs, flashcards, and get detailed explanations.
