Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for Precipitating factors identification. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 1: A 27-year-old diabetic male rushes to the emergency department after finding his blood glucose level to be 492 mg/dL which is reconfirmed in the ED. He currently does not have any complaints except for a mild colicky abdominal pain. His temperature is 37°C (98.6°F), respirations are 15/min, pulse is 67/min, and blood pressure is 122/88 mm Hg. Blood is drawn for labs the result of which is given below:
Serum:
pH 7.0
pCO2 32 mm Hg
HCO3- 15.2 mEq/L
Sodium 122 mEq/L
Potassium 4.8 mEq/L
Urinalysis is positive for ketone bodies. He is admitted to the hospital and given intravenous bicarbonate and then started on an insulin drip and normal saline. 7 hours later, he is found to be confused and complaining of a severe headache. His temperature is 37°C (98.6°F), pulse is 50/min, respirations are 13/min and irregular, and blood pressure is 137/95 mm Hg. What other examination findings would be expected in this patient?
- A. Pancreatitis
- B. Pupillary constriction
- C. Hypoglycemia
- D. Peripheral edema
- E. Papilledema (Correct Answer)
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***Papilledema***
- The patient's presentation with **confusion**, **severe headache**, **bradycardia**, **irregular respirations**, and **elevated blood pressure** (Cushing's triad) 7 hours after treatment for **diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)** suggests increased intracranial pressure due to **cerebral edema**.
- **Papilledema** is a key ophthalmoscopic finding in significant cerebral edema, resulting from increased intracranial pressure transmitted to the optic nerve sheath.
*Pancreatitis*
- Pancreatitis can cause abdominal pain and may be associated with DKA, but the acute neurological deterioration with signs of increased intracranial pressure after initial treatment points away from pancreatitis as the primary expected finding at this stage.
- While initial mild colicky abdominal pain could suggest pancreatitis, the late-onset confusion, headache, and vital sign changes following DKA treatment are not characteristic of pancreatitis, but rather of a severe neurological complication.
*Pupillary constriction*
- **Pupillary constriction** (miosis) can be associated with opioid overdose, pontine lesions, or certain medications, but it is not a direct or expected finding in cerebral edema causing increased intracranial pressure.
- In cerebral edema, pupils are more likely to be dilated or unequal, especially if there is uncal herniation.
*Hypoglycemia*
- While **hypoglycemia** can occur with insulin therapy, leading to confusion and neurological symptoms, the patient's blood pressure is elevated and heart rate is low (bradycardia), which are not typical signs of hypoglycemia.
- Hypoglycemia usually presents with sympathetic activation (tachycardia, diaphoresis) before progressing to bradycardia in severe cases, but the associated hypertension and irregular breathing pattern are more indicative of increased intracranial pressure.
*Peripheral edema*
- **Peripheral edema** is swelling in the extremities and is generally due to fluid overload, heart failure, kidney disease, or liver disease.
- While fluid administration during DKA treatment could potentially lead to some fluid retention, it does not explain the acute neurological deterioration, headache, and vital sign changes (Cushing's triad) seen in this patient, which are far more characteristic of cerebral edema.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 2: An 8-year old boy is brought to the emergency department because he has been lethargic and has had several episodes of nausea and vomiting for the past day. He has also had increased thirst over the past two months. He has lost 5.4 kg (11.9 lbs) during this time. He is otherwise healthy and has no history of serious illness. His temperature is 37.5 °C (99.5 °F), blood pressure is 95/68 mm Hg, pulse is 110/min, and respirations are 30/min. He is somnolent and slightly confused. His mucous membranes are dry. Laboratory studies show:
Hemoglobin 16.2 g/dL
Leukocyte count 9,500/mm3
Platelet count 380,000/mm3
Serum
Na+ 130 mEq/L
K+ 5.5 mEq/L
Cl- 99 mEq/L
HCO3- 16 mEq/L
Creatinine 1.2 mg/dL
Glucose 570 mg/dL
Ketones positive
Blood gases, arterial
pH 7.25
pCO2 21 mm Hg
Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management?
- A. Intravenous hydration with 0.45% normal saline and insulin
- B. Intravenous hydration with 5% dextrose solution and 0.45% normal saline
- C. Intravenous sodium bicarbonate
- D. Intravenous hydration with 0.9% normal saline and insulin (Correct Answer)
- E. Intravenous hydration with 0.9% normal saline and potassium chloride
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***Intravenous hydration with 0.9% normal saline and insulin***
- This patient presents with **diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)**, characterized by hyperglycemia (glucose 570 mg/dL), metabolic acidosis (pH 7.25, HCO3- 16 mEq/L, ketones positive), and dehydration (dry mucous membranes, increased thirst, weight loss).
- Initial management of DKA involves aggressive **volume expansion** with **0.9% normal saline** to restore perfusion and reduce hyperglycemia; subsequently, **insulin infusion** is started to correct hyperglycemia and halt ketogenesis.
*Intravenous hydration with 0.45% normal saline and insulin*
- While insulin is crucial, **0.45% normal saline (hypotonic saline)** is generally not the initial fluid of choice for DKA due to the risk of exacerbating cerebral edema, especially in children.
- **Isotonic saline (0.9% normal saline)** is preferred for initial resuscitation to rapidly restore extracellular fluid volume.
*Intravenous hydration with 5% dextrose solution and 0.45% normal saline*
- **5% dextrose solution** should only be added to intravenous fluids when the blood glucose level falls to around 200-250 mg/dL, to prevent hypoglycemia while continuing insulin to resolve ketosis.
- Administering dextrose initially would worsen the existing severe hyperglycemia.
*Intravenous sodium bicarbonate*
- **Sodium bicarbonate** is generally not recommended for mild to moderate DKA due to potential risks like cerebral edema and metabolic alkalosis, and potential paradoxical worsening of CNS acidosis.
- Bicarbonate therapy is reserved for **severe acidosis (pH < 6.9 or 7.0)** with hemodynamic instability or impaired cardiac contractility, which is not the case here.
*Intravenous hydration with 0.9% normal saline and potassium chloride*
- While **0.9% normal saline** is appropriate, this option lacks **insulin therapy**, which is essential for treating DKA by halting ketogenesis and correcting hyperglycemia.
- Although potassium supplementation will be necessary during DKA treatment (as insulin drives K+ into cells and can cause hypokalemia), the most appropriate **next step** is to initiate both fluid resuscitation and insulin therapy together.
- The patient's current potassium level of 5.5 mEq/L is at the upper limit of normal, but reflects total body potassium depletion; potassium should be added to maintenance fluids once adequate urine output is established.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 3: A 27-year-old man presents to the emergency department with his family because of abdominal pain, excessive urination, and drowsiness since the day before. He has had type 1 diabetes mellitus for 2 years. He ran out of insulin 2 days ago. The vital signs at admission include: temperature 36.8°C (98.2°F), blood pressure 102/69 mm Hg, and pulse 121/min. On physical examination, he is lethargic and his breathing is rapid and deep. There is a mild generalized abdominal tenderness without rebound tenderness or guarding. His serum glucose is 480 mg/dL. Arterial blood gas of this patient will most likely show which of the following?
- A. ↑ pH, ↑ bicarbonate, and normal pCO2
- B. ↓ pH, ↓ bicarbonate and ↑ anion gap (Correct Answer)
- C. ↑ pH, normal bicarbonate and ↓ pCO2
- D. ↓ pH, ↓ bicarbonate and normal anion gap
- E. ↓ pH, normal bicarbonate and ↑ pCO2
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***↓ pH, ↓ bicarbonate and ↑ anion gap***
- The patient's symptoms (abdominal pain, excessive urination, drowsiness, rapid and deep breathing, hyperglycemia) and history of Type 1 diabetes with missed insulin are highly suggestive of **diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)**.
- DKA is characterized by **metabolic acidosis** due to the accumulation of ketone bodies, leading to a **decreased pH**, consumption of bicarbonate and thus a **decreased bicarbonate level**, and an **increased anion gap**.
*↑ pH, ↑ bicarbonate, and normal pCO2*
- This pattern suggests a **metabolic alkalosis**, which is inconsistent with the patient's presentation of DKA.
- Metabolic alkalosis is typically seen in conditions like severe vomiting or diuretic use, not uncontrolled diabetes.
*↑ pH, normal bicarbonate and ↓ pCO2*
- This profile describes **respiratory alkalosis**, often caused by primary hyperventilation.
- While the patient has rapid and deep breathing (Kussmaul respiration), this is a compensatory mechanism for metabolic acidosis, not a primary respiratory alkalosis.
*↓ pH, ↓ bicarbonate and normal anion gap*
- This indicates a **normal anion gap metabolic acidosis**, also known as hyperchloremic acidosis.
- This is typically seen in conditions like renal tubular acidosis or severe diarrhea, where bicarbonate is lost or chloride is retained, which is not the case for DKA.
*↓ pH, normal bicarbonate and ↑ pCO2*
- This presentation indicates **respiratory acidosis**, which is caused by hypoventilation and retention of CO2.
- The patient's rapid and deep breathing (Kussmaul breathing) is a compensatory mechanism to blow off CO2 and would decrease pCO2, not increase it.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 4: A 20-year-old male is brought by ambulance to the emergency room in extremis. He is minimally conscious, hypotensive, and tachypneic, and his breath gives off a "fruity" odor. An arterial blood gas and metabolic panel show anion gap metabolic acidosis. This patient is most likely deficient in which of the following metabolic actions?
- A. Glucagon production
- B. Cortisol secretion
- C. Formation of ketone bodies
- D. Glucose production
- E. Cellular uptake of glucose (Correct Answer)
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***Cellular uptake of glucose***
- The patient's symptoms, including **fruity odor breath**, **anion gap metabolic acidosis**, and being found in extremis, are classic signs of **diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)**.
- DKA results from a profound lack of **insulin**, which is essential for cells (especially muscle and adipose tissue) to take up glucose from the bloodstream, leading to hyperglycemia and a shift to fat metabolism.
*Glucagon production*
- **Glucagon** is a counter-regulatory hormone that *raises* blood glucose levels, and its production is often *increased* in DKA as the body attempts to provide fuel to cells in the absence of insulin's effect.
- A deficiency in glucagon production would more likely lead to **hypoglycemia**, not the profound hyperglycemia seen in DKA.
*Cortisol secretion*
- **Cortisol** is another counter-regulatory hormone that *increases* blood glucose, and its secretion is typically *elevated* in stress states like DKA.
- A deficiency in cortisol (e.g., in adrenal insufficiency) would present with different symptoms such as **hypoglycemia**, **hyponatremia**, and **hyperkalemia**, without the classic DKA picture.
*Formation of ketone bodies*
- The patient's **fruity odor breath** and **anion gap metabolic acidosis** are direct consequences of the *overproduction* of **ketone bodies**.
- This overproduction occurs when the body, lacking glucose for fuel due to insulin deficiency, switches to **fat metabolism**, leading to excessive formation of acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone.
*Glucose production*
- **Glucose production** (gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis) is typically *increased* in DKA as the liver tries to supply glucose to the body due to perceived cellular starvation (despite high blood glucose).
- A deficiency in glucose production, such as in certain glycogen storage diseases or severe liver failure, would lead to **hypoglycemia**, not the hyperglycemia characteristic of DKA.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 5: A 21-year-old man presents to the emergency room with abdominal pain and nausea for the past 5 hours. The pain is diffusely spread and of moderate intensity. The patient also says he has not felt like eating since yesterday. He has no past medical history and is not on any medications. He regularly drinks 2–4 beers per day but does not smoke or use illicit substances. Vitals show a pulse of 120/min, a respiratory rate of 26/min, a blood pressure of 110/60 mm Hg, and a temperature of 37.8°C (100.0°F). Examination reveals a soft, diffusely tender abdomen with no guarding. Bowel sounds are present. His mucous membranes are slightly dry and there is a fruity smell to his breath. Laboratory tests show:
Laboratory test
pH 7.31
Serum glucose (random) 450 mg/dL
Serum electrolytes
Sodium 149 mEq/L
Potassium 5 mEq/L
Chloride 99 mEq/L
Bicarbonate 16 mEq/L
Serum creatinine 1.0 mg/dL
Blood urea nitrogen 15 mg/dL
Urinalysis
Proteins Negative
Glucose Positive
Ketones Positive
Leucocytes Negative
Nitrites Negative
Red blood cells (RBC) Negative
Casts Negative
Which of the following explains this patient's presentation?
- A. Fecalith in the caecum
- B. Presence of gut contents in the abdominal cavity
- C. Effects of alcohol on mitochondrial metabolic activity
- D. Burn out of pancreatic beta cells (Correct Answer)
- E. Blunt trauma to the abdomen
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: **Burn out of pancreatic beta cells**
- The patient's presentation with **new-onset diabetes**, along with **abdominal pain**, **nausea**, **dehydration** (dry mucous membranes, tachycardia), **acidosis** (pH 7.31, bicarbonate 16 mEq/L), **hyperglycemia** (450 mg/dL), and **ketonuria**, is highly suggestive of **diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)**. DKA in a young, previously healthy individual often indicates a new diagnosis of **type 1 diabetes mellitus** due to rapid **beta-cell destruction**.
- The **fruity smell on breath** (due to acetone) and **polydipsia** are classic signs of DKA, which results from profound insulin deficiency leading to increased lipolysis, ketogenesis, and severe metabolic acidosis, effectively representing a "burnout" or severe dysfunction of the pancreatic beta cells.
*Fecalith in the caecum*
- A **fecalith in the caecum** could cause localized abdominal pain, often associated with **appendicitis**, but it does not explain the widespread metabolic derangements seen in this patient, such as **hyperglycemia**, **acidosis**, and **ketonuria**.
- The diffuse abdominal tenderness and absence of specific signs like **guarding** or **rebound tenderness**, along with the systemic symptoms, do not align with an isolated fecalith obstruction.
*Presence of gut contents in the abdominal cavity*
- The presence of **gut contents in the abdominal cavity** (e.g., from a ruptured appendix or perforated viscus) would typically present with a more acute abdomen, including **severe guarding**, **rebound tenderness**, and signs of **septic shock**, which are not prominent here.
- This condition also would not explain the specific biochemical findings of **hyperglycemia**, **acidosis**, and **ketonuria** that point towards DKA.
*Effects of alcohol on mitochondrial metabolic activity*
- While **alcohol can affect mitochondrial metabolism** and lead to certain metabolic derangements (e.g., alcoholic ketoacidosis), this condition typically occurs in chronic alcoholics with acute alcohol withdrawal or binge drinking, and is characterized by a **normal or low glucose** level, in contrast to the severe **hyperglycemia** seen in this patient.
- The patient's reported regular alcohol consumption of 2-4 beers per day would not typically cause such a severe metabolic acidosis with profound hyperglycemia unless superimposed on an underlying condition like new-onset diabetes.
*Blunt trauma to the abdomen*
- **Blunt abdominal trauma** would typically involve a clear history of injury and localized pain, potentially with signs of internal bleeding or organ damage, such as **peritoneal signs** or **hemodynamic instability**.
- There is no history of trauma, and the patient's symptoms and lab findings are inconsistent with trauma and highly characteristic of a metabolic emergency like **diabetic ketoacidosis**.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 6: A 48-year-old man presents with DKA. Initial treatment is initiated with fluids and insulin infusion. Labs show glucose 460 mg/dL, pH 7.18, bicarbonate 10 mEq/L, potassium 4.5 mEq/L, and creatinine 2.8 mg/dL (baseline 1.0). After 4 hours, glucose decreases to 380 mg/dL but pH worsens to 7.12, bicarbonate drops to 8 mEq/L, and lactate is 5.2 mmol/L (initially 1.8). Blood pressure is 85/50 mmHg. Evaluate the clinical situation and necessary intervention.
- A. Administer additional fluid bolus for persistent hypotension
- B. Evaluate for sepsis or other concurrent illness causing lactic acidosis (Correct Answer)
- C. Increase insulin infusion rate to accelerate ketone clearance
- D. Add bicarbonate therapy for worsening acidosis
- E. Continue current management as DKA takes time to resolve
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***Evaluate for sepsis or other concurrent illness causing lactic acidosis***
- While the blood glucose is responding to insulin, the **worsening metabolic acidosis** and significantly elevated **lactate (5.2 mmol/L)** indicate a secondary process such as **sepsis** or tissue hypoperfusion.
- **Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)** often has a precipitating factor; the combination of **hypotension** and rising lactate suggests **septic shock** or organic ischemia that requires urgent investigation and targeted treatment.
*Administer additional fluid bolus for persistent hypotension*
- Although fluid resuscitation is vital, simply giving more fluids without diagnosing the **underlying cause** of the rising lactate and refractory shock is insufficient.
- **Hypotension** in this context may be secondary to **septic shock** or systemic inflammatory response rather than simple volume depletion from DKA.
*Increase insulin infusion rate to accelerate ketone clearance*
- The current insulin infusion is successfully lowering the blood glucose, but the acidosis is worsening due to **lactic acid**, not just ketones.
- Increasing insulin will not resolve **Type A lactic acidosis** caused by **inadequate tissue oxygenation** or sepsis.
*Add bicarbonate therapy for worsening acidosis*
- **Bicarbonate therapy** is generally not recommended in DKA unless the pH is <6.9, as it can cause **paradoxical cerebral acidosis** and hypokalemia.
- Administering bicarbonate would provide a temporary buffer but would fail to address the **rising lactate** and underlying hemodynamic instability.
*Continue current management as DKA takes time to resolve*
- While DKA resolution is gradual, a **rising lactate** and **falling pH** despite therapy are red flags that indicate the clinical condition is deteriorating.
- Ignoring the **acute kidney injury** (Creatinine 2.8) and persistent **hypotension** increases the risk of multi-organ failure and mortality.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 7: A 25-year-old woman with type 1 diabetes presents with DKA. She admits to intentionally withholding insulin to lose weight. This is her fifth DKA admission in 8 months. Current pH is 7.14, glucose 520 mg/dL, bicarbonate 11 mEq/L. Medical costs exceed $150,000 for recurrent admissions. The team is frustrated. Evaluate the comprehensive management approach beyond acute DKA treatment.
- A. Referral to ethics committee for discussion of resource allocation
- B. Involuntary psychiatric commitment for non-compliance
- C. Insulin pump placement to prevent future manipulation
- D. Multidisciplinary approach including psychiatry, eating disorder specialist, diabetes educator, and close outpatient follow-up (Correct Answer)
- E. Standard DKA treatment with discharge to outpatient endocrinology
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***Multidisciplinary approach including psychiatry, eating disorder specialist, diabetes educator, and close outpatient follow-up***
- This patient presents with **diabulimia**, a life-threatening eating disorder where Type 1 diabetics restrict insulin for weight control, requiring a **comprehensive care team** to address both physiologic and psychological needs.
- A **multidisciplinary strategy** is essential to reduce the high risk of mortality and frequent **recurrent DKA admissions** by targeting the root cause of non-compliance.
*Referral to ethics committee for discussion of resource allocation*
- While medical costs are high, **withholding treatment** based on cost or resource allocation for a life-threatening condition like DKA is generally unethical.
- The **ethics committee** may assist in complex care plans, but it does not address the primary clinical need for specialized psychiatric and nutritional intervention.
*Involuntary psychiatric commitment for non-compliance*
- **Involuntary commitment** typically requires the patient to be a danger to themselves or others due to a mental illness; insulin omission, while dangerous, often does not meet legal criteria if the patient has **decision-making capacity**.
- Simple **non-compliance** in an adult with capacity is not usually grounds for commitment, and long-term behavioral change is better achieved through voluntary therapeutic engagement.
*Insulin pump placement to prevent future manipulation*
- An **insulin pump** is not a solution as it can still be easily manipulated, disconnected, or the settings altered by a patient determined to restrict insulin.
- Introducing a medical device without addressing the **underlying eating disorder** may actually complicate management and increase the risk of device-related complications.
*Standard DKA treatment with discharge to outpatient endocrinology*
- Given five DKA admissions in 8 months, standard management has already proven **insufficient** and fails to address the unique psychiatric etiology of her condition.
- Discharging to **standard outpatient endocrinology** without specialized eating disorder support ignores the behavioral triggers that lead to recurrent life-threatening metabolic crises.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 8: A 55-year-old man with type 2 diabetes and end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis presents with DKA. Initial glucose is 580 mg/dL, pH 7.12, bicarbonate 10 mEq/L, and potassium 6.2 mEq/L. He is fluid overloaded with bilateral crackles and peripheral edema. His last dialysis was 3 days ago. Evaluate the optimal management strategy addressing both DKA and renal failure.
- A. Standard DKA protocol with furosemide for fluid management
- B. Bicarbonate therapy to correct acidosis without fluids
- C. Subcutaneous insulin with no IV fluids due to volume overload
- D. Insulin infusion with limited fluids and urgent hemodialysis (Correct Answer)
- E. Standard DKA protocol with aggressive fluid resuscitation
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***Insulin infusion with limited fluids and urgent hemodialysis***
- Patients with **ESRD** and **DKA** who are **fluid overloaded** require **urgent hemodialysis** to safely correct metabolic acidosis, hyperkalemia, and volume status.
- **Continuous insulin infusion** is essential to stop ketone production, but fluid resuscitation must be severely **restricted** to avoid worsening pulmonary edema.
*Standard DKA protocol with furosemide for fluid management*
- **Furosemide** is ineffective in patients with **end-stage renal disease** (ESRD) as they have minimal to no residual renal function.
- Standard DKA protocols prioritize aggressive IV fluids, which would be **life-threatening** for a patient already showing signs of volume overload and crackles.
*Bicarbonate therapy to correct acidosis without fluids*
- **Bicarbonate therapy** is generally not recommended for DKA unless the pH is below 6.9, and it can cause a **rebound worsening** of intracellular acidosis.
- It does not address the underlying **insulin deficiency** or the patient's massive **volume overload** and hyperkalemia.
*Subcutaneous insulin with no IV fluids due to volume overload*
- **Subcutaneous insulin** is inappropriate for severe DKA (pH 7.12); **intravenous insulin** is the standard for rapid titration and metabolic control.
- Complete avoidance of fluids may prevent correction of the **osmotic shift**, but the primary failure here is the omission of dialysis for a symptomatic ESRD patient.
*Standard DKA protocol with aggressive fluid resuscitation*
- Aggressive fluid administration is **contraindicated** in ESRD patients with clinical signs of **congestive heart failure** like crackles and peripheral edema.
- This approach carries a high risk of inducing **acute respiratory failure** or flash pulmonary edema.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 9: A 38-year-old pregnant woman at 28 weeks gestation with type 1 diabetes presents with nausea and vomiting. Labs show glucose 310 mg/dL, pH 7.27, bicarbonate 15 mEq/L, and positive urine ketones. Fetal monitoring shows reactive non-stress test. She has been taking her insulin but unable to eat for 24 hours due to hyperemesis. Analyze the optimal management approach considering maternal and fetal risks.
- A. Standard DKA protocol with standard glucose targets (200-250 mg/dL)
- B. Aggressive DKA treatment with lower glucose targets (100-150 mg/dL) and close fetal monitoring (Correct Answer)
- C. Immediate cesarean delivery followed by DKA treatment
- D. Conservative management with oral intake and subcutaneous insulin
- E. Standard DKA protocol with delivery planning after stabilization
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***Aggressive DKA treatment with lower glucose targets (100-150 mg/dL) and close fetal monitoring***
- In pregnancy, **Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)** often presents with lower blood glucose levels due to increased **glucose utilization** by the fetus and placenta.
- Successful management requires **aggressive hydration**, **intravenous insulin**, and maintaining blood glucose between **100-150 mg/dL** to prevent fetal complications.
*Standard DKA protocol with standard glucose targets (200-250 mg/dL)*
- Standard targets for non-pregnant adults are too high for pregnancy and can lead to prolonged **fetal acidosis** and increased morbidity.
- Pregnancy-specific protocols prioritize tighter glycemic control to optimize the **maternal-fetal environment** during acute metabolic distress.
*Immediate cesarean delivery followed by DKA treatment*
- Surgery during **untreated DKA** carries extremely high maternal and fetal risk; the fetus should only be delivered for **obstetric indications** after maternal stabilization.
- **Fetal heart rate** abnormalities often resolve once the mother's **acidosis** and electrolyte imbalances are corrected with medical therapy.
*Conservative management with oral intake and subcutaneous insulin*
- Maternal **acidemia (pH 7.27)** and **ketonuria** indicate a medical emergency that cannot be safely managed with subcutaneous insulin or oral fluids.
- **Nausea and vomiting** from hyperemesis or the DKA itself necessitate **intravenous fluid resuscitation** and specialized inpatient monitoring.
*Standard DKA protocol with delivery planning after stabilization*
- While maternal stabilization is the primary goal, following a "standard" protocol ignores the need for **lower glucose targets** unique to pregnancy.
- **Delivery planning** at 28 weeks should only be considered if fetal distress persists after maternal metabolic status has returned to baseline.
Precipitating factors identification US Medical PG Question 10: A 42-year-old man with type 1 diabetes on insulin pump presents with DKA after pump malfunction. He is admitted and started on IV insulin infusion. After 14 hours of treatment, his glucose is 210 mg/dL on D5-0.45% saline, pH 7.36, bicarbonate 19 mEq/L, and anion gap 12. He is alert, eating, and requesting to go home. Evaluate the appropriate transition strategy.
- A. Switch to subcutaneous insulin and discharge immediately
- B. Stop IV insulin immediately and restart insulin pump at home
- C. Continue IV insulin for another 6 hours to ensure stability
- D. Give subcutaneous insulin, overlap for 1-2 hours, then stop IV insulin and observe (Correct Answer)
- E. Discontinue IV insulin, discharge with oral medications
Precipitating factors identification Explanation: ***Give subcutaneous insulin, overlap for 1-2 hours, then stop IV insulin and observe***
- DKA is considered resolved when the **anion gap** is <12, **bicarbonate** is ≥18, and **pH** >7.3; once resolved, transitioning to **subcutaneous insulin** is appropriate if the patient is eating.
- An **overlap period of 1-2 hours** between the administration of subcutaneous insulin and the cessation of the **IV insulin infusion** is mandatory to prevent the recurrence of ketoacidosis due to the short half-life of IV insulin.
*Switch to subcutaneous insulin and discharge immediately*
- While the transition to subcutaneous insulin is correct, **immediate discharge** is unsafe as the patient must be observed for metabolic stability after the transition.
- Adequate time must be allowed for **absorption of subcutaneous insulin** and verification that the patient can maintain glycemic control while off the infusion.
*Stop IV insulin immediately and restart insulin pump at home*
- Stopping IV insulin **immediately** without an overlap period leads to a rapid decline in serum insulin levels and risks a **rebound of ketosis**.
- Relying on the patient to restart a potentially **malfunctioning pump** at home without inpatient supervision increases the risk of treatment failure.
*Continue IV insulin for another 6 hours to ensure stability*
- **Prolonging IV insulin** after the resolution of DKA and normalization of the anion gap is unnecessary and increases the risk of **hypoglycemia** and **hypokalemia**.
- Since the patient is alert and **eating**, they meet the criteria for transitioning to a subcutaneous regimen to facilitate a return to normal metabolic management.
*Discontinue IV insulin, discharge with oral medications*
- **Type 1 diabetic** patients have an absolute insulin deficiency and always require exogenous insulin; **oral medications** are inappropriate for managing T1DM.
- Discontinuing insulin therapy in a T1DM patient will inevitably lead to the return of **hyperglycemia** and life-threatening **diabetic ketoacidosis**.
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