Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for Pattern recognition in diagnosis. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 1: A researcher is trying to determine whether a newly discovered substance X can be useful in promoting wound healing after surgery. She conducts this study by enrolling the next 100 patients that will be undergoing this surgery and separating them into 2 groups. She decides which patient will be in which group by using a random number generator. Subsequently, she prepares 1 set of syringes with the novel substance X and 1 set of syringes with a saline control. Both of these sets of syringes are unlabeled and the substances inside cannot be distinguished. She gives the surgeon performing the surgery 1 of the syringes and does not inform him nor the patient which syringe was used. After the study is complete, she analyzes all the data that was collected and performs statistical analysis. This study most likely provides which level of evidence for use of substance X?
- A. Level 3
- B. Level 1 (Correct Answer)
- C. Level 4
- D. Level 5
- E. Level 2
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Level 1***
- The study design described is a **randomized controlled trial (RCT)**, which is considered the **highest level of evidence (Level 1)** in the hierarchy of medical evidence.
- Key features like **randomization**, **control group**, and **blinding (double-blind)** help minimize bias and strengthen the validity of the findings.
*Level 2*
- Level 2 evidence typically comprises **well-designed controlled trials without randomization** (non-randomized controlled trials) or **high-quality cohort studies**.
- While strong, they do not possess the same level of internal validity as randomized controlled trials.
*Level 3*
- Level 3 evidence typically includes **case-control studies** or **cohort studies**, which are observational designs and carry a higher risk of bias compared to RCTs.
- These studies generally do not involve randomization or intervention assignment by the researchers.
*Level 4*
- Level 4 evidence is usually derived from **case series** or **poor quality cohort and case-control studies**.
- These studies provide descriptive information or investigate associations without strong control for confounding factors.
*Level 5*
- Level 5 evidence is the **lowest level of evidence**, consisting of **expert opinion** or **animal research/bench research**.
- This level lacks human clinical data or systematic investigative rigor needed for higher evidence levels.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 2: A 52-year-old woman presents to the urgent care center with several hours of worsening abdominal discomfort with radiation to the back. The patient also complains of malaise, chills, nausea, and vomiting. Social history is notable for alcoholism. On physical exam, she is febrile to 39.5°C (103.1°F), and she is diffusely tender to abdominal palpation. Complete blood count is notable for 13,500 white blood cells, bilirubin 2.1, lipase 842, and amylase 3,210. Given the following options, what is the most likely diagnosis?
- A. Choledocholithiasis
- B. Ascending cholangitis
- C. Gallstone pancreatitis (Correct Answer)
- D. Cholelithiasis
- E. Acute cholecystitis
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Gallstone pancreatitis***
- The patient presents with classic symptoms of **acute pancreatitis**: severe abdominal pain radiating to the back, nausea, vomiting, and markedly elevated **lipase (842)** and **amylase (3,210)**.
- The **key differentiating feature** is the elevated **bilirubin (2.1 mg/dL)**, which indicates biliary obstruction from a gallstone passing through or obstructing the ampulla of Vater.
- **Gallstone pancreatitis** is the most common cause of acute pancreatitis in women, and the combination of pancreatitis with hyperbilirubinemia strongly suggests a biliary etiology rather than alcoholic pancreatitis (which typically does not cause elevated bilirubin).
- While the patient has a history of alcoholism, the elevated bilirubin makes **gallstone pancreatitis** the most likely diagnosis.
*Choledocholithiasis*
- This refers to a stone in the **common bile duct**, which can cause biliary obstruction and elevated bilirubin.
- However, choledocholithiasis alone does not explain the **markedly elevated lipase and amylase**, which indicate pancreatic inflammation.
- Choledocholithiasis may be present as part of the pathophysiology, but the clinical picture is acute pancreatitis caused by the stone (gallstone pancreatitis).
*Ascending cholangitis*
- This serious bile duct infection presents with **Charcot's triad** (fever, jaundice, right upper quadrant pain) or **Reynolds' pentad** (adds altered mental status and hypotension).
- While the patient is febrile, she lacks **jaundice**, hypotension, or altered mental status.
- The **extremely elevated lipase and amylase** point to pancreatitis rather than cholangitis as the primary process.
*Cholelithiasis*
- This simply means **gallstones in the gallbladder**, which are often asymptomatic.
- The patient's acute presentation with fever, systemic symptoms, and markedly elevated pancreatic enzymes indicates a complication of gallstones (pancreatitis), not just their presence.
*Acute cholecystitis*
- This is **gallbladder inflammation**, typically presenting with right upper quadrant pain, fever, positive Murphy's sign, and leukocytosis.
- The **diffuse abdominal tenderness** (not localized to RUQ), pain radiating to the back, and **extremely elevated lipase and amylase** are characteristic of pancreatitis, not cholecystitis.
- Acute cholecystitis does not cause such dramatic elevations in pancreatic enzymes.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 3: A 52-year-old man comes to the physician because of a 3-week history of a cough and hoarseness. He reports that the cough is worse when he lies down after lunch. His temperature is 37.5°C (99.5°F); the remainder of his vital signs are within normal limits. Because the physician has recently been seeing several patients with the common cold, the diagnosis of a viral upper respiratory tract infection readily comes to mind. The physician fails to consider the diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux disease, which the patient is later found to have. Which of the following most accurately describes the cognitive bias that the physician had?
- A. Framing
- B. Anchoring
- C. Visceral
- D. Confirmation
- E. Availability (Correct Answer)
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Availability***
- The physician recently seeing several patients with the common cold led to this diagnosis readily coming to mind, demonstrating how easily recalled examples can disproportionately influence diagnosis.
- This bias occurs when easily recalled instances or information (like recent cases of common cold) are used to estimate the likelihood or frequency of an event, even if other more relevant data exist.
*Framing*
- This bias occurs when the way information is presented (e.g., as a gain or a loss) influences a decision, rather than the intrinsic characteristics of the options themselves.
- The scenario does not involve the presentation of information in different ways to sway the physician's judgment.
*Anchoring*
- This bias involves relying too heavily on an initial piece of information (the "anchor") when making subsequent judgments, often leading to insufficient adjustment away from that anchor.
- While the physician initially considered a viral URI, the setup is more about the ease of recall influencing the decision rather than being stuck on an initial data point.
*Visceral*
- This is not a commonly recognized cognitive bias in the context of medical decision-making; "visceral" largely refers to emotional or intuitive feelings rather than a structured cognitive bias.
- Cognitive biases describe systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, not merely emotional responses.
*Confirmation*
- This bias involves seeking, interpreting, favoring, and recalling information in a way that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.
- The physician did not actively seek information to confirm the common cold diagnosis; rather, the diagnosis came to mind due to recent encounters, which aligns with availability bias.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 4: A research study is comparing 2 novel tests for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The first is a serum blood test, and the second is a novel PET radiotracer that binds to beta-amyloid plaques. The researchers intend to have one group of patients with AD assessed via the novel blood test, and the other group assessed via the novel PET examination. In comparing these 2 trial subsets, the authors of the study may encounter which type of bias?
- A. Selection bias (Correct Answer)
- B. Confounding bias
- C. Recall bias
- D. Measurement bias
- E. Lead-time bias
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Selection bias***
- This occurs when different patient groups are assigned to different interventions or measurements in a way that creates **systematic differences** between comparison groups.
- In this study, having **separate patient groups** assessed with different diagnostic methods (blood test vs. PET scan) means any differences observed could be due to **differences in the patient populations** rather than differences in test performance.
- To validly compare two diagnostic tests, both tests should ideally be performed on the **same patients** (paired design) or patients should be **randomly assigned** to receive one test or the other, ensuring comparable groups.
- This is a fundamental **study design flaw** that prevents valid comparison of the two diagnostic methods.
*Measurement bias*
- Also called information bias, this occurs when there are systematic errors in how outcomes or exposures are measured.
- While using different measurement tools could introduce measurement variability, the primary issue here is that **different patient populations** are being compared, not just different measurement methods on the same population.
- Measurement bias would be more relevant if the same patients were assessed with both methods but one method was systematically misapplied or measured incorrectly.
*Confounding bias*
- This occurs when an extraneous variable is associated with both the exposure and outcome, distorting the observed relationship.
- While patient characteristics could confound results, the fundamental problem is the **study design itself** (separate groups for separate tests), which is selection bias.
*Recall bias*
- This involves systematic differences in how participants remember or report past events, common in **retrospective case-control studies**.
- Not relevant here, as this involves prospective diagnostic testing, not recollection of past exposures.
*Lead-time bias*
- Occurs in screening studies when earlier detection makes survival appear longer without changing disease outcomes.
- Not applicable to this scenario, which focuses on comparing two diagnostic methods in separate patient groups, not on survival or disease progression timing.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 5: A 57-year-old man presents to his oncologist to discuss management of small cell lung cancer. The patient is a lifelong smoker and was diagnosed with cancer 1 week ago. The patient states that the cancer was his fault for smoking and that there is "no hope now." He seems disinterested in discussing the treatment options and making a plan for treatment and followup. The patient says "he does not want any treatment" for his condition. Which of the following is the most appropriate response from the physician?
- A. "You seem upset at the news of this diagnosis. I want you to go home and discuss this with your loved ones and come back when you feel ready to make a plan together for your care."
- B. "It must be tough having received this diagnosis; however, new cancer therapies show increased efficacy and excellent outcomes."
- C. "It must be very challenging having received this diagnosis. I want to work with you to create a plan." (Correct Answer)
- D. "We are going to need to treat your lung cancer. I am here to help you throughout the process."
- E. "I respect your decision and we will not administer any treatment. Let me know if I can help in any way."
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***"It must be very challenging having received this diagnosis. I want to work with you to create a plan."***
- This response **acknowledges the patient's emotional distress** and feelings of guilt and hopelessness, which is crucial for building rapport and trust.
- It also gently **re-engages the patient** by offering a collaborative approach to treatment, demonstrating the physician's commitment to supporting him through the process.
*"You seem upset at the news of this diagnosis. I want you to go home and discuss this with your loved ones and come back when you feel ready to make a plan together for your care."*
- While acknowledging distress, sending the patient home without further engagement **delays urgent care** for small cell lung cancer, which is aggressive.
- This response might be perceived as dismissive of his immediate feelings and can **exacerbate his sense of hopelessness** and isolation.
*"It must be tough having received this diagnosis; however, new cancer therapies show increased efficacy and excellent outcomes."*
- This statement moves too quickly to treatment efficacy without adequately addressing the patient's current **emotional state and fatalism**.
- While factual, it **lacks empathy** for his personal feelings of blame and hopelessness, potentially making him feel unheard.
*"We are going to need to treat your lung cancer. I am here to help you throughout the process."*
- This response is **too directive and authoritarian**, which can alienate a patient who is already feeling guilty and resistant to treatment.
- It fails to acknowledge his stated feelings of "no hope now" or his disinterest in treatment, which are critical to address before discussing the necessity of treatment.
*"I respect your decision and we will not administer any treatment. Let me know if I can help in any way."*
- While respecting patient autonomy is vital, immediately accepting a patient's decision to refuse treatment without exploring the underlying reasons (e.g., guilt, hopelessness, lack of information) is **premature and potentially harmful**.
- The physician has a responsibility to ensure the patient is making an informed decision, especially for a rapidly progressing condition like small cell lung cancer.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 6: Two studies are reviewed for submission to an oncology journal. In Study A, a novel MRI technology is evaluated as a screening tool for ovarian cancer. The authors find that the mean survival time is 4 years in the control group and 10 years in the MRI-screened group. In Study B, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and a novel antidepressant are used to treat patients with comorbid pancreatic cancer and major depression. Patients receiving the new drug are told that they are expected to have quick resolution of their depression, while those who do not receive the drug are not told anything about their prognosis. Which of the following describes the likely type of bias in Study A and Study B?
- A. Latency Bias; Golem effect
- B. Confounding; Golem effect
- C. Lead time bias; Golem effect
- D. Lead time bias; Pygmalion effect (Correct Answer)
- E. Latency bias; Pygmalion effect
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Lead time bias; Pygmalion effect***
- In Study A, the MRI technology detects ovarian cancer earlier, artificially making the survival time appear longer simply due to earlier diagnosis, not necessarily improved outcomes, which is characteristic of **lead time bias**.
- In Study B, the patients receiving the new drug are told to expect quick resolution of their depression, leading to increased expectation of improvement, which describes the **Pygmalion effect** (a form of observer-expectancy effect where higher expectations lead to increased performance).
*Latency Bias; Golem effect*
- **Latency bias** refers to a delay in the manifestation of an outcome, which is not the primary issue in Study A's screening context.
- The **Golem effect** is a form of negative self-fulfilling prophecy where lower expectations placed upon individuals by superiors/researchers lead to poorer performance, which is opposite to what is described in Study B.
*Confounding; Golem effect*
- **Confounding** occurs when an unmeasured third variable is associated with both the exposure and the outcome, distorting the observed relationship; while confounding is common, the scenario in Study A specifically points to a screening effect on survival time.
- As mentioned, the **Golem effect** refers to negative expectations leading to poorer outcomes, which is not present in Study B.
*Lead time bias; Golem effect*
- **Lead time bias** correctly identifies the issue in Study A, as explaining the apparently longer survival as a result of earlier detection.
- However, the **Golem effect** incorrectly describes the scenario in Study B, where positive expectations are given, not negative ones.
*Latency bias; Pygmalion effect*
- **Latency bias** is not the primary bias described in Study A; the immediate impact of early detection on survival statistics points to lead time bias.
- The **Pygmalion effect** correctly describes the bias in Study B, where positive expectations from the researchers influence patient outcomes.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 7: A 31-year-old man presents with jaundice, scleral icterus, dark urine, and pruritus. He also says that he has been experiencing abdominal pain shortly after eating. He says that symptoms started a week ago and have not improved. The patient denies any associated fever or recent weight-loss. He is afebrile and vital signs are within normal limits. On physical examination, the patient’s skin appears yellowish. Scleral icterus is present. Remainder of physical examination is unremarkable. Laboratory findings are significant for:
Conjugated bilirubin 5.1 mg/dL
Total bilirubin 6.0 mg/dL
AST 24 U/L
ALT 22 U/L
Alkaline phosphatase 662 U/L
A contrast CT of the abdomen is unremarkable. An ultrasound of the right upper quadrant reveals a normal gallbladder, but the common bile duct is not visible. Which of the following is the next best step in the management of this patient?
- A. Serologies for antimitochondrial antibodies
- B. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) (Correct Answer)
- C. HIDA scan
- D. Hepatitis serologies
- E. Antibiotics and admit to observation
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)***
- The patient's presentation with **jaundice, scleral icterus, dark urine, pruritus, unremarked CT abdomen, and significantly elevated alkaline phosphatase** (suggesting **cholestasis**), coupled with an ultrasound showing **non-visualization of the common bile duct**, points to a **biliary obstruction**. ERCP is both diagnostic and therapeutic in this setting, allowing for direct visualization and potential relief of the obstruction.
- The combination of **conjugated hyperbilirubinemia** and isolated elevated alkaline phosphatase with normal AST/ALT indicates a **biliary outflow problem**, warranting further imaging of the biliary tree beyond initial ultrasound and CT.
*Serologies for antimitochondrial antibodies*
- **Antimitochondrial antibodies (AMAs)** are characteristic of **primary biliary cholangitis (PBC)**, which presents with similar symptoms like pruritus and elevated alkaline phosphatase.
- However, PBC primarily affects **intrahepatic bile ducts** and typically does not present with an acute, complete common bile duct obstruction that would lead to non-visualization on ultrasound.
*HIDA scan*
- A **HIDA scan** (hepatobiliary iminodiacetic acid scan) is used to assess **gallbladder function** and patency of the cystic duct in cases of suspected **acute cholecystitis**.
- The ultrasound already showed a normal gallbladder, and the primary concern here is a common bile duct obstruction, not gallbladder inflammation or function.
*Hepatitis serologies*
- **Hepatitis serologies** (e.g., for Hepatitis A, B, C) would be appropriate if the clinical picture suggested **hepatitis** (e.g., markedly elevated AST/ALT, fever, malaise).
- In this patient, the **transaminases (AST, ALT) are normal**, which makes acute viral hepatitis an unlikely primary diagnosis for his acute presentation and cholestatic pattern.
*Antibiotics and admit to observation*
- While **cholangitis** (biliary infection) can cause fever and severe abdominal pain, the patient denies fever and his vital signs are stable, making acute cholangitis less likely as the primary problem needing immediate antibiotics.
- Admitting for observation without further diagnostic intervention would delay identifying and treating the underlying cause of the **biliary obstruction**, which could lead to serious complications.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 8: A 28-year-old male presents to his primary care physician with complaints of intermittent abdominal pain and alternating bouts of constipation and diarrhea. His medical chart is not significant for any past medical problems or prior surgeries. He is not prescribed any current medications. Which of the following questions would be the most useful next question in eliciting further history from this patient?
- A. "Does the diarrhea typically precede the constipation, or vice-versa?"
- B. "Is the diarrhea foul-smelling?"
- C. "Please rate your abdominal pain on a scale of 1-10, with 10 being the worst pain of your life"
- D. "Are the symptoms worse in the morning or at night?"
- E. "Can you tell me more about the symptoms you have been experiencing?" (Correct Answer)
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Can you tell me more about the symptoms you have been experiencing?***
- This **open-ended question** encourages the patient to provide a **comprehensive narrative** of their symptoms, including details about onset, frequency, duration, alleviating/aggravating factors, and associated symptoms, which is crucial for diagnosis.
- In a patient presenting with vague, intermittent symptoms like alternating constipation and diarrhea, allowing them to elaborate freely can reveal important clues that might not be captured by more targeted questions.
*Does the diarrhea typically precede the constipation, or vice-versa?*
- While knowing the sequence of symptoms can be helpful in understanding the **pattern of bowel dysfunction**, it is a very specific question that might overlook other important aspects of the patient's experience.
- It prematurely narrows the focus without first obtaining a broad understanding of the patient's overall symptomatic picture.
*Is the diarrhea foul-smelling?*
- Foul-smelling diarrhea can indicate **malabsorption** or **bacterial overgrowth**, which are important to consider in some gastrointestinal conditions.
- However, this is a **specific symptom inquiry** that should follow a more general exploration of the patient's symptoms, as it may not be relevant if other crucial details are missed.
*Please rate your abdominal pain on a scale of 1-10, with 10 being the worst pain of your life*
- Quantifying pain intensity is useful for assessing the **severity of discomfort** and monitoring changes over time.
- However, for a patient with intermittent rather than acute, severe pain, understanding the **character, location, and triggers** of the pain is often more diagnostically valuable than just a numerical rating initially.
*Are the symptoms worse in the morning or at night?*
- Diurnal variation can be relevant in certain conditions, such as inflammatory bowel diseases where nocturnal symptoms might be more concerning, or functional disorders whose symptoms might be stress-related.
- This is another **specific question** that should come after gathering a more complete initial picture of the patient's symptoms to ensure no key information is overlooked.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 9: A 15-year-old boy is brought to the Emergency department by ambulance from school. He started the day with some body aches and joint pain but then had several episodes of vomiting and started complaining of a terrible headache. The school nurse called for emergency services. The boy was born at 39 weeks gestation via spontaneous vaginal delivery. He is up to date on all vaccines and is meeting all developmental milestones. Past medical history is noncontributory. He is a good student and enjoys sports. At the hospital, his blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg, heart rate is 105/min, respiratory rate is 21/min, and his temperature is 38.9°C (102.0°F). On physical exam, he appears drowsy with neck stiffness and sensitivity to light. Kernig’s sign is positive. An ophthalmic exam is performed followed by a lumbar puncture. An aliquot of cerebrospinal fluid is sent to microbiology. A gram stain shows gram-negative diplococci. A smear is prepared on blood agar and grows round, smooth, convex colonies with clearly defined edges. Which of the following would identify the described pathogen?
- A. Oxidase-positive and ferments glucose and maltose (Correct Answer)
- B. Oxidase-positive test and ferments glucose only
- C. Catalase-negative and oxidase-positive
- D. No growth on Thayer-Martin medium
- E. Growth in anaerobic conditions
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Oxidase-positive and ferments glucose and maltose***
- The patient's symptoms (fever, headache, neck stiffness, sensitivity to light, positive Kernig's sign) are classic for **meningitis**, and the CSF showing **gram-negative diplococci** points to *Neisseria meningitidis*.
- *Neisseria meningitidis* is identified by its positive **oxidase test** and its ability to ferment both **glucose and maltose**.
*Oxidase-positive test and ferments glucose only*
- This description corresponds to *Neisseria gonorrhoeae*, which primarily causes **gonorrhea** and occasionally meningitis due to disseminated infection but is less common in this age group and presentation.
- While *Neisseria gonorrhoeae* is also an **oxidase-positive gram-negative diplococcus**, it specifically ferments only *glucose*, not maltose.
*Catalase-negative and oxidase-positive*
- While *Neisseria meningitidis* is **oxidase-positive**, stating it is "catalase-negative" is incorrect; *Neisseria* species are actually **catalase-positive**.
- This option incorrectly describes a general metabolic property that would rule out *Neisseria meningitidis*.
*No growth on Thayer-Martin medium*
- Thayer-Martin medium is a **selective medium** specifically designed to isolate pathogenic *Neisseria species* by inhibiting the growth of commensal bacteria and fungi.
- Therefore, *Neisseria meningitidis* would **grow well** on Thayer-Martin medium, making "no growth" an incorrect identifier.
*Growth in anaerobic conditions*
- *Neisseria meningitidis* is an **obligate aerobe**, meaning it requires oxygen for growth.
- It would **not grow** in anaerobic conditions, making this statement false for identifying the described pathogen.
Pattern recognition in diagnosis US Medical PG Question 10: A 63-year-old woman with a past medical history significant for hypertension presents to the outpatient clinic for evaluation of vaginal dryness, loss of libido, and hot flashes. These symptoms have been progressively worsening over the past 3 months. Her vital signs are: blood pressure 131/81 mm Hg, pulse 68/min, and respiratory rate 16/min. She is afebrile. On further review of systems, she endorses having irregular periods for almost a year, and asks if she has begun menopause. Which of the following parameters is required to formally diagnosis menopause in this patient?
- A. Increased serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- B. Increased serum luteinizing hormone (LH)
- C. Cessation of menses for at least 12 months (Correct Answer)
- D. Pelvic ultrasound demonstrating decreased follicular activity
- E. Increased total cholesterol
Pattern recognition in diagnosis Explanation: ***Cessation of menses for at least 12 months***
- The formal diagnosis of **menopause** is clinical, defined as 12 consecutive months of **amenorrhea** in the absence of other physiological or pathological causes.
- This criterion indicates the **cessation of ovarian function** without requiring lab tests, especially in women over 40.
*Increased serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)*
- While an **elevated FSH level** is a biochemical indicator of declining ovarian function, it is not strictly required for a clinical diagnosis of menopause, particularly in older women with typical symptoms and amenorrhea.
- FSH levels can fluctuate during the **perimenopausal period**, making a single measurement less definitive than the clinical criterion of 12 months without menses.
*Increased serum luteinizing hormone (LH)*
- Similar to FSH, **LH levels** typically rise during menopause due to reduced estrogen feedback, but an elevated LH is not part of the formal clinical diagnostic criteria for menopause.
- The **FSH-to-LH ratio** can also be used, but the 12-month amenorrhea rule remains the primary diagnostic standard.
*Pelvic ultrasound demonstrating decreased follicular activity*
- A pelvic ultrasound can show **decreased ovarian volume** and a lack of developing follicles, indicating reduced ovarian activity, but this is not a required diagnostic parameter for menopause.
- Clinical history and the 12-month cessation of menses are sufficient for diagnosis, making **imaging studies** generally unnecessary unless there are other concerns.
*Increased total cholesterol*
- While **elevated cholesterol levels** can be associated with menopause due to changes in estrogen, it is a metabolic consequence or associated risk factor, not a diagnostic criterion for menopause itself.
- Menopause can lead to an increased risk of **cardiovascular disease**, which includes dyslipidemia, but this is a secondary effect, not a primary diagnostic marker.
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