Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 1: A researcher is studying whether a new knee implant is better than existing alternatives in terms of pain after knee replacement. She designs the study so that it includes all the surgeries performed at a certain hospital. Interestingly, she notices that patients who underwent surgeries on Mondays and Thursdays reported much better pain outcomes on a survey compared with those who underwent the same surgeries from the same surgeons on Tuesdays and Fridays. Upon performing further analysis, she discovers that one of the staff members who works on Mondays and Thursdays is aware of the study and tells all the patients about how wonderful the new implant is. Which of the following forms of bias does this most likely represent?
- A. Hawthorne effect
- B. Pygmalion effect (Correct Answer)
- C. Attrition bias
- D. Golem effect
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***Pygmalion effect***
- This bias occurs when higher expectations lead to an increase in performance. In this scenario, the staff member's positive reinforcement about the new implant likely instilled **higher patient expectations**, leading to better reported pain outcomes.
- The patients' belief in the implant's superiority, influenced by the staff member, acted as a **self-fulfilling prophecy**, improving their subjective pain experience.
*Hawthorne effect*
- This effect describes how individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. While patients were part of a study, their improved outcomes were specifically linked to a staff member's verbal influence, not solely the act of observation.
- The improved pain outcomes stem from the **expectations created by the staff member's praise**, rather than a general awareness of being studied.
*Attrition bias*
- Attrition bias refers to systematic differences between groups in the loss of participants from a study.
- This scenario describes differences in patient outcomes based on staff influence during the study, not due to **patients dropping out differentially** between groups.
*Golem effect*
- The Golem effect is the opposite of the Pygmalion effect, where lower expectations placed upon individuals lead to poorer performance from them.
- In this case, the staff member's influence created **high expectations and positive outcomes**, not negative expectations leading to worse outcomes.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 2: A randomized controlled trial is conducted investigating the effects of different diagnostic imaging modalities on breast cancer mortality. 8,000 women are randomized to receive either conventional mammography or conventional mammography with breast MRI. The primary outcome is survival from the time of breast cancer diagnosis. The conventional mammography group has a median survival after diagnosis of 17.0 years. The MRI plus conventional mammography group has a median survival of 19.5 years. If this difference is statistically significant, which form of bias may be affecting the results?
- A. Recall bias
- B. Selection bias
- C. Misclassification bias
- D. Because this study is a randomized controlled trial, it is free of bias
- E. Lead-time bias (Correct Answer)
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***Lead-time bias***
- This bias occurs when a screening test diagnoses a disease earlier, making **survival appear longer** even if the actual time of death is unchanged.
- In this scenario, adding **MRI** may detect breast cancer at an earlier, asymptomatic stage, artificially extending the apparent survival duration from diagnosis without necessarily changing the ultimate prognosis.
*Recall bias*
- **Recall bias** applies to retrospective studies where subjects are asked to recall past exposures, and those with the outcome are more likely to remember potential exposures.
- It's irrelevant here as this is a **prospective randomized controlled trial** studying objective survival outcomes, not subjective past recollections.
*Selection bias*
- **Selection bias** occurs when participants are not randomly assigned to groups, leading to systematic differences between the groups influencing the outcome.
- This study is a **randomized controlled trial**, which is designed to minimize selection bias by ensuring participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either treatment arm.
*Misclassification bias*
- **Misclassification bias** happens when either the exposure or the outcome is incorrectly categorized, leading to erroneous associations.
- This study uses objective diagnostic imaging and survival data, thus reducing the likelihood of **misclassification of diagnosis or survival status**.
*Because this study is a randomized controlled trial, it is free of bias*
- While **randomized controlled trials (RCTs)** are considered the **gold standard** for minimizing bias, they are not entirely immune to all forms of bias.
- **Lead-time bias**, for instance, can still occur in RCTs involving screening or early diagnosis, as seen in this example, and other biases like **information bias** or **reporting bias** can also arise.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 3: You are reading through a recent article that reports significant decreases in all-cause mortality for patients with malignant melanoma following treatment with a novel biological infusion. Which of the following choices refers to the probability that a study will find a statistically significant difference when one truly does exist?
- A. Type II error
- B. Type I error
- C. Confidence interval
- D. p-value
- E. Power (Correct Answer)
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***Power***
- **Power** is the probability that a study will correctly reject the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, false (i.e., will find a statistically significant difference when one truly exists).
- A study with high power minimizes the risk of a **Type II error** (failing to detect a real effect).
*Type II error*
- A **Type II error** (or **beta error**) occurs when a study fails to reject a false null hypothesis, meaning it concludes there is no significant difference when one actually exists.
- This is the **opposite** of what the question describes, which asks for the probability of *finding* a difference.
*Type I error*
- A **Type I error** (or **alpha error**) occurs when a study incorrectly rejects a true null hypothesis, concluding there is a significant difference when one does not actually exist.
- This relates to the **p-value** and the level of statistical significance (e.g., p < 0.05).
*Confidence interval*
- A **confidence interval** provides a range of values within which the true population parameter is likely to lie with a certain degree of confidence (e.g., 95%).
- It does not directly represent the probability of finding a statistically significant difference when one truly exists.
*p-value*
- The **p-value** is the probability of observing data as extreme as, or more extreme than, that obtained in the study, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
- It is used to determine statistical significance, but it is not the probability of detecting a true effect.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 4: A group of gastroenterologists is concerned about low colonoscopy screening rates. They decide to implement a free patient navigation program to assist local residents and encourage them to obtain colonoscopies in accordance with U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) guidelines. Local residents were recruited at community centers. Participants attended monthly meetings with patient navigators and were regularly reminded that their adherence to screening guidelines was being evaluated. Colonoscopy screening rates were assessed via chart review, which showed that 90% of participants adhered to screening guidelines. Data collected via chart review for local residents recruited at community centers who did not participate in the free patient navigation system found that 34% of that population adhered to USPSTF guidelines. Which of the following has most likely contributed to the observed disparity in colonoscopy screening rates?
- A. Recall bias
- B. Confirmation bias
- C. Reporting bias
- D. Hawthorne effect (Correct Answer)
- E. Sampling bias
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***Hawthorne effect***
- The **Hawthorne effect** is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.
- In this study, participants were aware that their adherence to screening guidelines was being evaluated, likely leading to increased compliance simply due to this awareness rather than the efficacy of the patient navigation program alone.
*Recall bias*
- **Recall bias** occurs when participants disproportionately remember or inaccurately recall past events, often due to their current health status or beliefs.
- This bias is less likely here as colonoscopy screening rates were assessed via **chart review**, an objective measure, rather than participant self-report.
*Confirmation bias*
- **Confirmation bias** is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.
- This bias typically affects the researchers or observers, not the participants' behavior in the observed manner, as the question focuses on the participants' increased screening rates.
*Reporting bias*
- **Reporting bias** refers to selective revealing or suppression of information during the reporting of research findings, and can occur when study participants selectively report symptoms or behaviors.
- While participants might selectively report, the data here was gathered through **chart review**, which is a more objective measure of actual behavior, making reporting bias less likely to explain the disparity in screening rates.
*Sampling bias*
- **Sampling bias** occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn, leading to skewed results.
- While there might be some sampling bias in who chose to participate in the free program, the observed disparity is specifically about behavior change in those *being observed*, pointing more strongly to the Hawthorne effect.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 5: Two studies are reviewed for submission to an oncology journal. In Study A, a novel MRI technology is evaluated as a screening tool for ovarian cancer. The authors find that the mean survival time is 4 years in the control group and 10 years in the MRI-screened group. In Study B, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and a novel antidepressant are used to treat patients with comorbid pancreatic cancer and major depression. Patients receiving the new drug are told that they are expected to have quick resolution of their depression, while those who do not receive the drug are not told anything about their prognosis. Which of the following describes the likely type of bias in Study A and Study B?
- A. Latency Bias; Golem effect
- B. Confounding; Golem effect
- C. Lead time bias; Golem effect
- D. Lead time bias; Pygmalion effect (Correct Answer)
- E. Latency bias; Pygmalion effect
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***Lead time bias; Pygmalion effect***
- In Study A, the MRI technology detects ovarian cancer earlier, artificially making the survival time appear longer simply due to earlier diagnosis, not necessarily improved outcomes, which is characteristic of **lead time bias**.
- In Study B, the patients receiving the new drug are told to expect quick resolution of their depression, leading to increased expectation of improvement, which describes the **Pygmalion effect** (a form of observer-expectancy effect where higher expectations lead to increased performance).
*Latency Bias; Golem effect*
- **Latency bias** refers to a delay in the manifestation of an outcome, which is not the primary issue in Study A's screening context.
- The **Golem effect** is a form of negative self-fulfilling prophecy where lower expectations placed upon individuals by superiors/researchers lead to poorer performance, which is opposite to what is described in Study B.
*Confounding; Golem effect*
- **Confounding** occurs when an unmeasured third variable is associated with both the exposure and the outcome, distorting the observed relationship; while confounding is common, the scenario in Study A specifically points to a screening effect on survival time.
- As mentioned, the **Golem effect** refers to negative expectations leading to poorer outcomes, which is not present in Study B.
*Lead time bias; Golem effect*
- **Lead time bias** correctly identifies the issue in Study A, as explaining the apparently longer survival as a result of earlier detection.
- However, the **Golem effect** incorrectly describes the scenario in Study B, where positive expectations are given, not negative ones.
*Latency bias; Pygmalion effect*
- **Latency bias** is not the primary bias described in Study A; the immediate impact of early detection on survival statistics points to lead time bias.
- The **Pygmalion effect** correctly describes the bias in Study B, where positive expectations from the researchers influence patient outcomes.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 6: A 56-year-old man presents to the family medicine office since he has been having difficulty keeping his blood pressure under control for the past month. He has a significant medical history of hypertension, coronary artery disease, and diabetes mellitus. He has a prescription for losartan, atenolol, and metformin. The blood pressure is 178/100 mm Hg, the heart rate is 92/min, and the respiratory rate is 16/min. The physical examination is positive for a grade II holosystolic murmur at the left sternal border. He also has diminished sensation in his toes. Which of the following statements is the most effective means of communication between the doctor and the patient?
- A. “What is causing your blood pressure to be elevated?” (Correct Answer)
- B. “Have you been taking your medications as prescribed?”
- C. “Would you like us to consider trying a different medication for your blood pressure?”
- D. “You are taking your medications as prescribed, aren’t you?”
- E. “Why are you not taking your medication?”
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***“What is causing your blood pressure to be elevated?”***
- This is an **open-ended question** that encourages the patient to share their perspective, concerns, and potential reasons for the elevated blood pressure, fostering a **patient-centered approach**.
- It allows the physician to understand the patient's individual circumstances, medication adherence, lifestyle factors, or other contributing issues without being judgmental or leading.
*“Have you been taking your medications as prescribed?”*
- This is a **closed-ended question** that primarily elicits a "yes" or "no" answer, providing limited insight into the patient's actual adherence and the underlying reasons for non-adherence.
- While important, phrasing it this way might make the patient feel interrogated or judged, potentially hindering honest communication.
*“Would you like us to consider trying a different medication for your blood pressure?”*
- This question prematurely jumps to a solution without fully understanding the cause of the elevated blood pressure and the patient's perspective.
- It bypasses the crucial step of investigating potential reasons for poor blood pressure control, which could include non-adherence, lifestyle factors, or secondary hypertension, rather than necessarily a medication efficacy issue.
*“You are taking your medications as prescribed, aren’t you?”*
- This is a **leading question** that implies an expectation and can make the patient feel pressured to answer affirmatively, even if they are not consistently taking their medication.
- Such phrasing can create a defensive environment and discourage the patient from openly discussing adherence challenges.
*“Why are you not taking your medication?”*
- This is a **direct and accusatory question** that implies blame and can immediately put the patient on the defensive, making them less likely to be honest or forthcoming about their medication habits.
- It fails to create a supportive or collaborative atmosphere, which is essential for effective patient-physician communication.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 7: A 67-year-old man comes to the physician for a routine examination. He does not take any medications. He drinks 6 to 7 bottles of beer every night, and says he often has a shot of whiskey in the morning “for my headache.” He was recently fired from his job for arriving late. He says there is nothing wrong with his drinking but expresses frustration at his best friend no longer returning his calls. Which of the following is the most appropriate initial response by the physician?
- A. I'm sorry that your friend no longer returns your calls. What do you think your friend is worried about? (Correct Answer)
- B. I'm sorry to hear you lost your job. I am concerned about the amount of alcohol you are drinking.
- C. I'm sorry to hear you lost your job. Drinking the amount of alcohol that you do can have very negative effects on your health.
- D. I'm sorry that your friend no longer returns your calls. It seems like your drinking is affecting your close relationships.
- E. I'm sorry that your friend no longer returns your calls. Do you feel that your drinking has affected your relationship with your friend?
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***"I'm sorry that your friend no longer returns your calls. What do you think your friend is worried about?"***
- This response acknowledges the patient's expressed **frustration** about his friend, which is a point of **distress** he has brought up.
- By asking what the friend is worried about, the physician invites the patient to reflect on the potential impact of his drinking from an external perspective, fostering **insight** without being confrontational.
*"I'm sorry to hear you lost your job. I am concerned about the amount of alcohol you are drinking."*
- While addressing the job loss is empathetic, immediately stating concern about his drinking can be confrontational and may lead the patient to become **defensive**, especially since he denies a problem.
- This approach might **shut down** further discussion rather than encourage it, as the patient has already stated "there is nothing wrong with his drinking."
*"I'm sorry to hear you lost your job. Drinking the amount of alcohol that you do can have very negative effects on your health."*
- This response is **judgmental** and directly highlights the negative consequences of his drinking, which the patient has already dismissed.
- Presenting medical facts about health effects at this stage, before establishing rapport and insight, is likely to be met with **resistance** and make the patient less receptive to further conversation.
*"I'm sorry that your friend no longer returns your calls. It seems like your drinking is affecting your close relationships."*
- This statement is a direct accusation, implying the physician knows the cause of the friend's actions and directly links it to the patient's drinking.
- Such a direct link is likely to be perceived as **judgmental** and can make the patient feel attacked, leading to defensiveness and a breakdown in communication.
*"I'm sorry that your friend no longer returns your calls. Do you feel that your drinking has affected your relationship with your friend?"*
- While this question is good, asking directly if his drinking has affected the relationship may elicit a **denial**, as the patient has already shown **lack of insight** regarding his drinking problem.
- A more open-ended question about what the friend is "worried about" is less threatening and more likely to encourage the patient to consider the connection himself.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 8: A 28-year-old male presents to his primary care physician with complaints of intermittent abdominal pain and alternating bouts of constipation and diarrhea. His medical chart is not significant for any past medical problems or prior surgeries. He is not prescribed any current medications. Which of the following questions would be the most useful next question in eliciting further history from this patient?
- A. "Does the diarrhea typically precede the constipation, or vice-versa?"
- B. "Is the diarrhea foul-smelling?"
- C. "Please rate your abdominal pain on a scale of 1-10, with 10 being the worst pain of your life"
- D. "Are the symptoms worse in the morning or at night?"
- E. "Can you tell me more about the symptoms you have been experiencing?" (Correct Answer)
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***Can you tell me more about the symptoms you have been experiencing?***
- This **open-ended question** encourages the patient to provide a **comprehensive narrative** of their symptoms, including details about onset, frequency, duration, alleviating/aggravating factors, and associated symptoms, which is crucial for diagnosis.
- In a patient presenting with vague, intermittent symptoms like alternating constipation and diarrhea, allowing them to elaborate freely can reveal important clues that might not be captured by more targeted questions.
*Does the diarrhea typically precede the constipation, or vice-versa?*
- While knowing the sequence of symptoms can be helpful in understanding the **pattern of bowel dysfunction**, it is a very specific question that might overlook other important aspects of the patient's experience.
- It prematurely narrows the focus without first obtaining a broad understanding of the patient's overall symptomatic picture.
*Is the diarrhea foul-smelling?*
- Foul-smelling diarrhea can indicate **malabsorption** or **bacterial overgrowth**, which are important to consider in some gastrointestinal conditions.
- However, this is a **specific symptom inquiry** that should follow a more general exploration of the patient's symptoms, as it may not be relevant if other crucial details are missed.
*Please rate your abdominal pain on a scale of 1-10, with 10 being the worst pain of your life*
- Quantifying pain intensity is useful for assessing the **severity of discomfort** and monitoring changes over time.
- However, for a patient with intermittent rather than acute, severe pain, understanding the **character, location, and triggers** of the pain is often more diagnostically valuable than just a numerical rating initially.
*Are the symptoms worse in the morning or at night?*
- Diurnal variation can be relevant in certain conditions, such as inflammatory bowel diseases where nocturnal symptoms might be more concerning, or functional disorders whose symptoms might be stress-related.
- This is another **specific question** that should come after gathering a more complete initial picture of the patient's symptoms to ensure no key information is overlooked.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 9: A 57-year-old man presents to the emergency department for weight loss and abdominal pain. The patient states that he has felt steadily more fatigued over the past month and has lost 22 pounds without effort. Today, he fainted prompting his presentation. The patient has no significant past medical history. He does have a 33 pack-year smoking history and drinks 4 to 5 alcoholic drinks per day. His temperature is 99.5°F (37.5°C), blood pressure is 100/58 mmHg, pulse is 100/min, respirations are 17/min, and oxygen saturation is 98% on room air. On physical exam, you see a patient who is very thin and appears to be pale. Stool fecal occult blood testing is positive. A CT scan of the abdomen is performed demonstrating a mass in the colon with multiple metastatic lesions scattered throughout the abdomen. The patient is informed of his diagnosis of metastatic colon cancer. When the patient conveys the information to his family he focuses his efforts on discussing the current literature in the field and the novel therapies that have been invented. He demonstrates his likely mortality outcome which he calculated using the results of a large multi-center study. Which of the following is this patient most likely demonstrating?
- A. Intellectualization (Correct Answer)
- B. Dissociation
- C. Rationalization
- D. Optimism
- E. Pessimism
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***Intellectualization***
- This defense mechanism involves **focusing on the intellectual aspects** of a stressful situation, using logical reasoning and factual analysis to avoid experiencing distressing emotions.
- The patient demonstrates this by discussing **literature, novel therapies, and mortality statistics** regarding his metastatic colon cancer.
*Dissociation*
- **Dissociation** involves a mental process that causes a lack of connection in a person's thoughts, memory, and sense of identity.
- This patient is actively engaging with the information, not disconnecting from it.
*Rationalization*
- **Rationalization** is creating logical but false explanations for unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or behaviors to justify them.
- The patient is not trying to justify his actions or feelings, but rather to understand his disease intellectually.
*Optimism*
- **Optimism** is a disposition to look on the favorable side of events or conditions and to expect the most favorable outcome.
- While hope for novel therapies could be seen as optimistic, his detailed calculation of mortality outcomes is a realistic, rather than purely optimistic, approach.
*Pessimism*
- **Pessimism** is a tendency to see the worst aspect of things or believe that the worst will happen.
- The patient is engaging with the facts of his diagnosis, even calculating his mortality outcome, which is not necessarily a pessimistic but rather a realistic and intellectual approach.
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning US Medical PG Question 10: A 27-year-old woman presents to her primary care physician for minor aches and pains in her bones and muscles. She states that these symptoms have persisted throughout her entire life but have worsened recently when she moved to attend college. The patient is physically active, and states that she eats a balanced diet. She is currently a full-time student and is sexually active with 1 partner. She states that she has been particularly stressed lately studying for final exams and occasionally experiences diarrhea. She has been taking acyclovir for a dermatologic herpes simplex virus infection with minimal improvement. On physical exam, the patient exhibits 4/5 strength in her upper and lower extremities, and diffuse tenderness over her limbs that is non-specific. Laboratory values are ordered as seen below:
Serum:
Na+: 144 mEq/L
Cl-: 102 mEq/L
K+: 4.7 mEq/L
HCO3-: 24 mEq/L
Ca2+: 5.0
Urea nitrogen: 15 mg/dL
Glucose: 81 mg/dL
Creatinine: 1.0 mg/dL
Alkaline phosphatase: 225 U/L
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST, GOT): 11 U/L
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT, GPT): 15 U/L
Which of the following is most likely associated with this patient’s presentation?
- A. Vitamin D deficiency (Correct Answer)
- B. Fibromyalgia
- C. Primary hyperparathyroidism
- D. Chronic fatigue syndrome
- E. Systemic lupus erythematosus
Cognitive biases in clinical reasoning Explanation: ***Correct: Vitamin D deficiency***
- The patient presents with the **classic biochemical findings of vitamin D deficiency**: **severe hypocalcemia (Ca2+ 5.0 mg/dL, normal 8.5-10.5)** and **elevated alkaline phosphatase (225 U/L)**.
- **Clinical features of osteomalacia** are present: diffuse bone and muscle pain, proximal muscle weakness (4/5 strength in extremities), and bone tenderness—all consistent with bone demineralization and secondary myopathy.
- **Risk factor identified**: Recent move to college may represent lifestyle changes including reduced sun exposure, dietary changes, or increased indoor time studying.
- The elevated alkaline phosphatase reflects increased osteoblastic activity attempting to compensate for undermineralized bone matrix.
- Severe vitamin D deficiency also impairs immune function, which may explain the herpes simplex infection with poor response to acyclovir.
*Incorrect: Chronic fatigue syndrome*
- Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a **diagnosis of exclusion** characterized by persistent unexplained fatigue for at least 6 months with **normal laboratory findings**.
- This patient has **significant biochemical abnormalities** (severe hypocalcemia, elevated alkaline phosphatase) that exclude CFS and point to a specific metabolic disorder.
- CFS does not cause hypocalcemia, elevated alkaline phosphatase, or objective muscle weakness on examination.
*Incorrect: Fibromyalgia*
- While fibromyalgia presents with widespread musculoskeletal pain, it is characterized by **normal laboratory studies** including normal calcium and alkaline phosphatase.
- The patient's severe hypocalcemia and elevated alkaline phosphatase exclude fibromyalgia as the primary diagnosis.
- Fibromyalgia typically requires identification of specific tender points on examination, which are not described here.
*Incorrect: Systemic lupus erythematosus*
- SLE typically presents with **multisystem involvement** including malar rash, photosensitivity, serositis, nephritis, and hematologic abnormalities.
- Laboratory findings would show **positive autoantibodies** (ANA, anti-dsDNA, anti-Smith), not isolated hypocalcemia with elevated alkaline phosphatase.
- The patient's normal liver and kidney function, absence of systemic features, and specific biochemical pattern do not support SLE.
*Incorrect: Primary hyperparathyroidism*
- Primary hyperparathyroidism is defined by **hypercalcemia** with elevated or inappropriately normal PTH levels.
- This patient has **severe hypocalcemia (Ca2+ 5.0)**, which is the **opposite** of what occurs in hyperparathyroidism.
- The biochemical pattern (low calcium, high alkaline phosphatase) is consistent with hypoparathyroidism or vitamin D deficiency, not hyperparathyroidism.
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