A researcher is conducting a study to compare fracture risk in male patients above the age of 65 who received annual DEXA screening to peers who did not receive screening. He conducts a randomized controlled trial in 900 patients, with half of participants assigned to each experimental group. The researcher ultimately finds similar rates of fractures in the two groups. He then notices that he had forgotten to include 400 patients in his analysis. Including the additional participants in his analysis would most likely affect the study's results in which of the following ways?

Increased probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is truly false

Wider confidence intervals of results

Increased probability of committing a type II error

Decreased significance level of results

Increased external validity of results

Study X examined the relationship between coffee consumption and lung cancer. The authors of Study X retrospectively reviewed patients' reported coffee consumption and found that drinking greater than 6 cups of coffee per day was associated with an increased risk of developing lung cancer. However, Study X was criticized by the authors of Study Y. Study Y showed that increased coffee consumption was associated with smoking. What type of bias affected Study X, and what study design is geared to reduce the chance of that bias?

Observer bias; double blind analysis

Quasi-experimental designs | Study Design

Quasi-Experimental Designs - Almost Experiments

Definition: An interventional study where investigators assign an exposure but without randomizing participants to intervention and control groups. They represent a step between observational studies and true experiments.
Core Use Case: Essential when randomization is unethical or impractical, such as evaluating the impact of a new hospital-wide hand hygiene policy or a state-wide public health law.
Key Limitation: Increased susceptibility to confounding variables compared to true experiments, as the treatment and control groups may not be comparable at baseline.

Decision Tree: Experimental vs. Quasi-experimental

⭐ High-Yield Example: The interrupted time-series design. Data is collected at multiple instances before and after an intervention to determine if there is a significant shift in the trend, effectively using the subjects as their own controls.

Common Designs - The Quasi Quartet

Quasi-experimental designs lack random assignment, making them more practical but also more susceptible to bias than true experiments. They are crucial when randomization is unethical or infeasible.

Design Name	Structure (O=Observation, X=Intervention)	Key Feature	Main Limitation
Nonequivalent Control Group	Group 1: O1 X O2 Group 2: O1 O2	Compares an intervention group with a non-randomized comparison group.	Selection bias due to non-randomization is the primary threat.
Interrupted Time-Series	O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6	Multiple observations before and after an intervention to detect a trend change.	Vulnerable to confounding by co-occurring historical events (history threat).
One-Group Pre-test/Post-test	O1 X O2	Simple before-and-after comparison in a single group.	Lacks a control; vulnerable to maturation, history, and testing effects.

⭐ The key distinction tested on the USMLE is identifying the major threat to validity for each design. For the Nonequivalent Control Group, it is overwhelmingly selection bias.

Validity Threats - Bias Brigade

📌 Mnemonic: "Some Men Hate Reading"

Selection Bias: The key threat. Non-random group assignment leads to baseline differences that confound results. Think: comparing a self-selected, motivated group vs. a standard control.
Maturation: Natural changes in subjects over time (e.g., aging, spontaneous recovery) mistaken for an intervention effect.
History: External, concurrent events that influence the outcome. Example: a new public health campaign starts during your study.
Regression to the Mean: Extreme pre-test scores naturally move closer to the average on re-testing, which can be misinterpreted as a treatment effect.

⭐ Exam Favorite: Selection bias is the most critical threat in quasi-experimental studies. The lack of randomization means pre-existing group differences may be the true cause of the observed outcome.

High-Yield Points - ⚡ Biggest Takeaways

Quasi-experimental studies lack random assignment, the key feature distinguishing them from true experiments (RCTs).

They are used when randomization is unethical or impractical, such as in community-wide health interventions.

The biggest weakness is a higher susceptibility to confounding variables, which threatens internal validity.

Common designs include before-and-after studies and interrupted time-series analysis.

They often possess strong external validity (generalizability) because they better reflect real-world conditions.