Research ethics principles US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for Research ethics principles. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 1: A 68-year-old man is being evaluated in your radiation oncology clinic for treatment of a solid tumor. Your hospital has just purchased a new proton beam purported to deliver targeted radiation with fewer side effects than traditional radiation therapy. The patient expresses strong interest in receiving proton beam therapy, and you feel that he may have a better outcome with this new treatment modality. Later that day, an executive from the patient's insurance company calls to tell you that proton beam therapy will cost the company (but not the patient) a much larger amount of money than traditional therapy. They are willing to pay for proton beam therapy, but request that you convince the patient to undergo traditional therapy instead. You have a longstanding relationship with this insurance company as well as this particular executive. How should you proceed?
- A. Tell the patient that proton beam therapy will not be covered by his insurance company, so you will need to proceed with traditional radiation therapy
- B. Discuss the issue of cost to the insurer with your patient, relaying the company's request to him without making further commentary or recommendation
- C. Call your hospital's ethics committee for a formal consultation
- D. Proceed with proton beam therapy as discussed at your patient's appointment (Correct Answer)
- E. Discuss the issue of cost to the insurer with your patient, pointing out that keeping his insurance company happy may make them more likely to cover additional treatments in the future
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***Proceed with proton beam therapy as discussed at your patient's appointment***
- The physician's primary **fiduciary duty** is to the patient's best interest, not the insurance company's financial concerns or their own relationship with the company.
- The patient has expressed interest, and the physician believes proton beam therapy offers a **better outcome with fewer side effects**, which constitutes optimal medical care in this scenario.
*Tell the patient that proton beam therapy will not be covered by his insurance company, so you will need to proceed with traditional radiation therapy*
- This is a deceptive act, as the insurance company has stated they **are willing to pay** for proton beam therapy.
- Misleading the patient about coverage status to benefit an insurance company is a breach of **medical ethics** and the physician's duty to the patient.
*Discuss the issue of cost to the insurer with your patient, relaying the company's request to him without making further commentary or recommendation*
- While seemingly transparent, introducing the insurance company's financial request to the patient can create **undue pressure** and influence their medical decisions based on external factors rather than their health needs.
- This can undermine the **trust** in the physician-patient relationship by involving the patient in the financial negotiations of third parties.
*Call your hospital's ethics committee for a formal consultation*
- While seeking ethical advice is generally good practice, the ethical obligation to prioritize the patient's best interest is **clear and immediate** in this situation.
- Delaying treatment or involving a committee for a scenario where the physician already believes a specific treatment is superior and available could unnecessarily **complicate the process** for the patient.
*Discuss the issue of cost to the insurer with your patient, pointing out that keeping his insurance company happy may make them more likely to cover additional treatments in the future*
- This suggestion subtly pressures the patient to choose a less optimal treatment based on future hypothetical benefits to the insurance company, which is a clear **conflict of interest**.
- It prioritizes the financial interests of the insurer and the physician's relationship with them over the patient's immediate medical needs and reinforces the concept of **undue influence**.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 2: A 52-year-old man with stage IV melanoma comes to the physician with his wife for a routine follow-up examination. He was recently diagnosed with new bone and brain metastases despite receiving aggressive chemotherapy but has not disclosed this to his wife. He has given verbal consent to discuss his prognosis with his wife and asks the doctor to inform her of his condition because he does not wish to do so himself. She is tearful and has many questions about his condition. Which of the following would be the most appropriate statement by the physician to begin the interview with the patient's wife?
- A. Have you discussed a living will or goals of care together?
- B. We should talk about how we can manage his symptoms with additional chemotherapy.
- C. Why do you think your husband has not discussed his medical condition with you?
- D. What is your understanding of your husband's current condition? (Correct Answer)
- E. Your husband has end-stage cancer, and his prognosis is poor.
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***What is your understanding of your husband's current condition?***
- This statement initiates the conversation by **assessing the wife's current knowledge** and emotional state, which is crucial for delivering sensitive and appropriate information.
- It allows the physician to tailor the discussion to her specific understanding and concerns, ensuring that information is delivered compassionately and effectively.
*Have you discussed a living will or goals of care together?*
- This question is too abrupt and **premature** as an opening, as the wife is clearly distressed and unaware of the full severity of her husband's condition.
- Discussions about end-of-life planning should only occur after the patient's wife has a clear understanding of the diagnosis and prognosis, and has processed this information.
*Your husband has end-stage cancer, and his prognosis is poor.*
- While factual, this statement is **too blunt and lacks empathy** for an opening, especially given the wife's emotional state and lack of prior knowledge.
- Delivering such devastating news directly without first assessing her understanding or providing context can be traumatic and impede effective communication.
*We should talk about how we can manage his symptoms with additional chemotherapy.*
- This statement implies a focus on further aggressive treatment which may not be appropriate given the **new bone and brain metastases** and aggressive prior chemotherapy, suggesting a limited benefit of more chemotherapy.
- It also **diverts from the primary need to discuss the overall prognosis** and the patient's rapidly declining condition, which the doctor has been asked to convey.
*Why do you think your husband has not discussed his medical condition with you?*
- This question is **accusatory** and places blame on either the patient or the wife, which is inappropriate and unhelpful in a sensitive medical discussion.
- It shifts the focus away from providing medical information and empathy towards a speculative and potentially confrontational topic.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 3: A 19-year-old man presents to an orthopedic surgeon to discuss repair of his torn anterior cruciate ligament. He suffered the injury during a college basketball game 1 week ago and has been using a knee immobilizer since the accident. His past medical history is significant for an emergency appendectomy when he was 12 years of age. At that time, he said that he never wanted to have surgery again. At this visit, the physician explains the procedure to him in detail including potential risks and complications. The patient acknowledges and communicates his understanding of both the diagnosis as well as the surgery and decides to proceed with the surgery in 3 weeks. Afterward, he signs a form giving consent for the operation. Which of the following statements is true about this patient?
- A. He cannot provide consent because he lacks capacity
- B. He has the right to revoke his consent at any time (Correct Answer)
- C. His parents also need to give consent to this operation
- D. He did not need to provide consent for this procedure since it is obviously beneficial
- E. His consent is invalid because his decision is not stable over time
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***He has the right to revoke his consent at any time***
- **Informed consent** for medical procedures is an ongoing process, and a patient retains the right to **withdraw consent** at any point, even after initially signing the consent form.
- This right is a fundamental aspect of patient autonomy and ensures that medical interventions are only performed with a patient's current and willing agreement.
*He cannot provide consent because he lacks capacity*
- The patient is 19 years old, which in most jurisdictions (including the US where the age of majority is typically 18) means he is considered an **adult** and legally capable of providing his own consent.
- The scenario explicitly states he "communicates his understanding of both the diagnosis as well as the surgery," indicating he possesses the **mental capacity** to make an informed decision.
*His parents also need to give consent to this operation*
- As a 19-year-old, the patient has reached the **age of majority** and is legally entitled to make his own medical decisions, including consenting to surgery.
- Parental consent is generally required for minors (individuals under the age of majority), but not for adults like this patient.
*He did not need to provide consent for this procedure since it is obviously beneficial*
- Even for procedures that are clearly **beneficial**, informed consent is ethically and legally mandatory to uphold **patient autonomy** and ensure respect for individual rights.
- The concept of "obviously beneficial" does not negate the requirement for a patient's explicit agreement to a medical intervention.
*His consent is invalid because his decision is not stable over time*
- While the patient might have initially hated surgery at age 12, his current decision at age 19 to proceed with the ACL repair is based on current information and his mature understanding.
- The fact that his previous aversion to surgery has changed does not invalidate his current, well-informed decision; it simply indicates a change in perspective based on new circumstances and greater maturity.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 4: A 15-year-old female presents to her family physician for an annual school physical exam and check-up. She is accompanied by her mother to the visit and is present in the exam room. The patient has no complaints, and she does not have any past medical problems. She takes no medications. The patient reports that she remains active, exercising 5 times a week, and eats a healthy and varied diet. Which of the following would be the best way for the physician to obtain a more in-depth social history, including sexual history and use of alcohol, tobacco, or recreational drugs?
- A. Disallow the mother to be present in the examination room throughout the entirety of the visit
- B. Give the patient a social history questionnaire to fill out in the exam room
- C. Ask the mother to step outside into the hall for a portion of the visit (Correct Answer)
- D. Ask the patient the questions directly, with her mother still in the exam room
- E. Speak softly to the patient so that the mother does not hear and the patient is not embarrassed
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***Ask the mother to step outside into the hall for a portion of the visit***
- This approach allows the physician to speak with the adolescent **privately and confidentially**, which is crucial for obtaining sensitive information such as sexual history, drug use, and mental health concerns.
- Adolescents are more likely to disclose personal information when their parents are not present, fostering trust and ensuring **comprehensive history-taking** vital for their well-being.
*Disallow the mother to be present in the examination room throughout the entirety of the visit*
- This is an **overly restrictive** approach that might create tension or distrust between the physician, patient, and parent, especially at the start of the visit.
- While privacy is essential for sensitive topics, parental presence can be valuable for discussing general health, family history, and **treatment plans**, especially for younger adolescents.
*Give the patient a social history questionnaire to fill out in the exam room*
- While questionnaires can be useful for gathering basic information, they often **lack the nuance** of a direct conversation and may not prompt the patient to elaborate on sensitive issues.
- Furthermore, having the mother present while the patient fills out a questionnaire on sensitive topics still **compromises confidentiality** and may lead to incomplete or dishonest answers.
*Ask the patient the questions directly, with her mother still in the exam room*
- Asking sensitive questions with a parent present is **unlikely to yield truthful and complete answers**, as adolescents may feel embarrassed, judged, or fear parental disapproval.
- This approach compromises the **confidentiality** that is fundamental to building trust with adolescent patients.
*Speak softly to the patient so that the mother does not hear and the patient is not embarrassed*
- Speaking softly is **unprofessional** and still does not guarantee privacy, as the mother might still overhear parts of the conversation.
- This method also **fails to establish true confidentiality**, which is central to building rapport and encouraging open communication with adolescent patients about sensitive topics.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 5: A 28-year-old woman dies shortly after receiving a blood transfusion. Autopsy reveals widespread intravascular hemolysis and acute renal failure. Investigation reveals that she received type A blood, but her medical record indicates she was type O. In a malpractice lawsuit, which of the following elements must be proven?
- A. Duty, breach, causation, and damages (Correct Answer)
- B. Only duty and breach
- C. Only breach and causation
- D. Duty, breach, and damages
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***Duty, breach, causation, and damages***
- In a medical malpractice lawsuit, all four elements—**duty, breach, causation, and damages**—must be proven for a successful claim.
- The healthcare provider had a **duty** to provide competent care, they **breached** that duty by administering the wrong blood type, this breach **caused** the patient's death and renal failure, and these injuries constitute **damages**.
*Only duty and breach*
- While **duty** and **breach** are necessary components, proving only these two is insufficient for a malpractice claim.
- It must also be demonstrated that the breach directly led to the patient's harm and resulted in legally recognized damages.
*Only breach and causation*
- This option omits the crucial elements of professional **duty** owed to the patient and the resulting **damages**.
- A claim cannot succeed without establishing that a duty existed and that quantifiable harm occurred.
*Duty, breach, and damages*
- This option misses the critical element of **causation**, which links the provider's breach of duty to the patient's injuries.
- Without proving that the breach *caused* the damages, even if a duty was owed and breached, and damages occurred, the claim would fail.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 6: A research group wants to assess the safety and toxicity profile of a new drug. A clinical trial is conducted with 20 volunteers to estimate the maximum tolerated dose and monitor the apparent toxicity of the drug. The study design is best described as which of the following phases of a clinical trial?
- A. Phase 0
- B. Phase III
- C. Phase V
- D. Phase II
- E. Phase I (Correct Answer)
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***Phase I***
- **Phase I clinical trials** involve a small group of healthy volunteers (typically 20-100) to primarily assess **drug safety**, determine a safe dosage range, and identify side effects.
- The main goal is to establish the **maximum tolerated dose (MTD)** and evaluate the drug's pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles.
*Phase 0*
- **Phase 0 trials** are exploratory studies conducted in a very small number of subjects (10-15) to gather preliminary data on a drug's **pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics** in humans.
- They involve microdoses, not intended to have therapeutic effects, and thus cannot determine toxicity or MTD.
*Phase III*
- **Phase III trials** are large-scale studies involving hundreds to thousands of patients to confirm the drug's **efficacy**, monitor side effects, compare it to standard treatments, and collect information that will allow the drug to be used safely.
- These trials are conducted after safety and initial efficacy have been established in earlier phases.
*Phase V*
- "Phase V" is not a standard, recognized phase in the traditional clinical trial classification (Phase 0, I, II, III, IV).
- This term might be used in some non-standard research contexts or for post-marketing studies that go beyond Phase IV surveillance, but it is not a formal phase for initial drug development.
*Phase II*
- **Phase II trials** involve several hundred patients with the condition the drug is intended to treat, focusing on **drug efficacy** and further evaluating safety.
- While safety is still monitored, the primary objective shifts to determining if the drug works for its intended purpose and at what dose.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 7: A 13-year-old boy is brought to the emergency department after being involved in a motor vehicle accident in which he was a restrained passenger. He is confused and appears anxious. His pulse is 131/min, respirations are 29/min, and blood pressure is 95/49 mm Hg. Physical examination shows ecchymosis over the upper abdomen, with tenderness to palpation over the left upper quadrant. There is no guarding or rigidity. Abdominal ultrasound shows free intraperitoneal fluid and a splenic rupture. Intravenous fluids and vasopressors are administered. A blood transfusion and exploratory laparotomy are scheduled. The patient's mother arrives and insists that her son should not receive a blood transfusion because he is a Jehovah's Witness. The physician proceeds with the blood transfusion regardless of the mother's wishes. The physician's behavior is an example of which of the following principles of medical ethics?
- A. Autonomy
- B. Nonmaleficence
- C. Informed consent
- D. Justice
- E. Beneficence (Correct Answer)
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***Beneficence***
- The physician prioritized the patient's immediate survival and well-being, which is the core principle of **beneficence** (acting in the best interest of the patient).
- In cases of life-threatening emergencies, especially with minors, the duty to preserve life often outweighs other considerations like parental wishes, particularly when the patient lacks the capacity for **informed refusal**.
*Autonomy*
- The physician’s action directly overrides the mother's wishes, which would be an infringement of surrogate autonomy for a minor.
- While patient autonomy is a fundamental principle, it was superseded by the immediate need to save the patient's life.
*Nonmaleficence*
- **Nonmaleficence** means "do no harm." While transfusions have risks, refusing one in this critical situation would cause more harm (death) than performing it.
- The physician acted to prevent immediate harm (death from hemorrhage), even if it meant overriding a family's wishes regarding the specific treatment method.
*Informed consent*
- **Informed consent** requires obtaining permission from a capacitated patient (or legal guardian for a minor) after explaining the risks and benefits of a treatment.
- In this emergency scenario, the patient is a minor and incapacitated, and the urgent need for a life-saving intervention (blood transfusion for a splenic rupture) did not allow for full informed consent or negotiation with the mother, who was refusing a life-saving measure.
*Justice*
- **Justice** refers to the fair and equitable distribution of healthcare resources and equal treatment, which is not the primary ethical concern in this personal patient-physician interaction.
- The scenario focuses on the individual patient's treatment decision, not broader societal resource allocation or fairness in access to care.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 8: A healthy, 16-year-old girl is brought in by her mother for a wellness visit. During the appointment, the patient’s mother brings up concerns about her daughter’s acne. The patient has had acne for 2 years. She washes her face twice a day with benzoyl peroxide and has been on doxycycline for 2 months with only mild improvement. The patient does not feel that the acne is related to her menstrual cycles. The patient’s mother states she does well in school and is the captain of the junior varsity cross-country team. She is worried that the acne is starting to affect her daughter’s self-esteem. The patient states that prom is coming up, and she is considering not going because she hates taking pictures. Upon physical exam, there are multiple open and closed comedones and scattered, red nodules on the patient’s face with evidence of scarring. The patient’s mother says her neighbor’s son tried isotretinoin and wants to know if that may work for her daughter. While talking about the risk factors for isotretinoin, you mention that patient will need to be on 2 forms of birth control. The mother asks, “Is that really necessary? We are a very religious family and my daughter knows our household rule about no sex before marriage.” Which of the following is the next step in management?
- A. Have the patient take a pregnancy test to prove abstinence
- B. Ask the mother to leave the room before talking to the patient about her sexual activity (Correct Answer)
- C. Talk to patient and mother about patient’s sexual activity, since parental permission is needed for isotretinoin
- D. Prescribe the isotretinoin as the patient does not need additional contraception if she is abstinent
- E. Prescribe the isotretinoin after giving the patient a handout about birth control methods
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***Ask the mother to leave the room before talking to the patient about her sexual activity***
- This respects the **adolescent's right to confidentiality** and allows for a candid discussion about sensitive topics like sexual activity and contraception
- A **16-year-old** has the right to private discussions about reproductive health matters, regardless of parental presence
- The **iPLEDGE program** requires comprehensive counseling about contraception for all females of childbearing potential, which is best accomplished in a private setting
- This approach balances the need to respect parental involvement while protecting the minor's confidentiality on sensitive health matters
*Have the patient take a pregnancy test to prove abstinence*
- While a pregnancy test is necessary before starting isotretinoin, it does not confirm or prove abstinence
- This is not the appropriate first step in addressing the mother's concerns or the patient's need for contraception counseling
- iPLEDGE guidelines require monthly negative pregnancy tests but also mandate contraception counseling regardless of pregnancy test results
*Talk to patient and mother about patient's sexual activity, since parental permission is needed for isotretinoin*
- Discussing sexual activity with both the patient and mother present **violates adolescent confidentiality** and may prevent honest disclosure
- Many states allow **mature minors** to consent to contraceptive services without parental involvement
- This approach could damage the therapeutic relationship and compromise the patient's willingness to share sensitive information
*Prescribe the isotretinoin as the patient does not need additional contraception if she is abstinent*
- This is incorrect as the **FDA-mandated iPLEDGE program** requires all females of childbearing potential to use two forms of contraception, regardless of stated abstinence
- The program makes no exception for patients claiming abstinence due to the **extreme teratogenicity** of isotretinoin
- Bypassing this requirement would violate federal regulations and expose the patient to risk of severe congenital malformations if pregnancy occurs
*Prescribe the isotretinoin after giving the patient a handout about birth control methods*
- Simply providing a handout is insufficient for effective contraception counseling required by the **iPLEDGE program**
- The patient needs detailed, private counseling to understand contraceptive options, the risks of isotretinoin, and to ensure adherence
- This approach fails to address the confidentiality issue raised by the mother's presence
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 9: A 26-year-old man comes to the emergency department because of a 1-week history of fever, throat pain, and difficulty swallowing. Head and neck examination shows an erythematous pharynx with purulent exudates overlying the palatine tonsils. Microscopic examination of a throat culture shows pink, spherical bacteria arranged in chains. Treatment with amoxicillin is initiated. A day later, a physician colleague from another department approaches the physician in the lobby of the hospital and asks about this patient, saying, "Did you see him? What does he have? He's someone I play football with and he hasn't come to play for the past 5 days. I'm worried about him." Which of the following is the most appropriate action by the physician?
- A. Inform the colleague that they should ask the patient's attending physician
- B. Inform the colleague that they cannot divulge any information about the patient (Correct Answer)
- C. Tell the colleague the patient's case file number so they can look it up themselves
- D. Tell the colleague that they cannot tell them the diagnosis but that their friend was treated with antibiotics
- E. Ask the colleague to meet in the office so they can discuss the patient in private
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***Inform the colleague that they cannot divulge any information about the patient***
- The **Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)** strictly prohibits the disclosure of a patient's **Protected Health Information (PHI)** without their explicit consent.
- Even if the inquirer knows the patient, a physician-patient relationship creates a **duty of confidentiality** that supersedes personal acquaintance.
- Disclosing any information without patient consent, even to another physician, violates HIPAA regulations.
*Tell the colleague the patient's case file number so they can look it up themselves*
- Providing the case file number would enable unauthorized access to the patient's medical records, thereby violating **patient confidentiality** and **HIPAA regulations**.
- This action does not rectify the breach of confidentiality and escalates the potential for further misuse of PHI.
*Inform the colleague that they should ask the patient's attending physician*
- Recommending that the colleague ask the attending physician shifts the burden but does not address the underlying ethical and legal obligation of the current physician to maintain **confidentiality**.
- The attending physician would also be bound by **HIPAA** and ethical guidelines not to disclose information without consent.
*Tell the colleague that they cannot tell them the diagnosis but that their friend was treated with antibiotics*
- While seemingly less specific, stating that the friend was treated with **antibiotics** is still a disclosure of **Protected Health Information (PHI)**.
- This action violates **patient confidentiality** as it reveals a detail of the patient's medical management without consent.
*Ask the colleague to meet in the office so they can discuss the patient in private*
- Moving to a private setting does not negate the fact that discussing the patient's information with an unauthorized individual is a **breach of confidentiality**.
- The location of the conversation does not change the ethical and legal obligations to protect **PHI**.
Research ethics principles US Medical PG Question 10: A 16-year-old boy is brought to his primary care physician for evaluation of visual loss and is found to have lens subluxation. In addition, he is found to have mild scoliosis that is currently being monitored. Physical exam reveals a tall and thin boy with long extremities. Notably, his fingers and toes are extended and his thumb and little finger can easily encircle his wrist. On this visit, the boy asks his physician about a friend who has a very similar physical appearance because his friend was recently diagnosed with a pheochromocytoma. He is worried that he will also get a tumor but is reassured that he is not at increased risk for any endocrine tumors. Which of the following genetic principles most likely explains why this patient and his friend have a similar physical appearance and yet only one is at increased risk of tumors?
- A. Variable expression
- B. Locus heterogeneity (Correct Answer)
- C. Anticipation
- D. Incomplete penetrance
- E. Pleiotropy
Research ethics principles Explanation: ***Locus heterogeneity***
- This principle explains that **similar phenotypes** (like the Marfanoid habitus) can result from mutations at **different genetic loci**. In this case, two distinct genetic conditions (Marfan syndrome and MEN 2B for the friend) can both cause tall stature and long limbs, but only one is associated with pheochromocytoma.
- The patient's presentation of **lens subluxation**, **scoliosis**, and **Marfanoid habitus** strongly suggests Marfan syndrome, typically caused by *FBN1* mutations, which does not predispose to pheochromocytomas. The friend's similar appearance coupled with pheochromocytoma suggests a different genetic condition, such as **Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2B (MEN 2B)**, which involves *RET* gene mutations.
*Variable expression*
- This describes the phenomenon where individuals with the **same genotype** exhibit **different degrees of severity** in their phenotype. It doesn't explain why two individuals with similar physical features have different underlying genetic causes and therefore different risks for specific complications like tumors.
- Variable expression would suggest that if both individuals had the same genetic mutation, they might show different levels of Marfanoid features or tumor development, but it wouldn't account for the complete absence of tumor risk in one.
*Anticipation*
- This refers to a genetic phenomenon where the **severity of a genetic disease increases** and/or the **age of onset decreases** in successive generations.
- Anticipation is typically seen in disorders caused by **trinucleotide repeat expansions** (e.g., Huntington's disease, myotonic dystrophy) and is not relevant to explaining different tumor risks with similar phenotypes across unrelated individuals.
*Incomplete penetrance*
- This occurs when individuals with a specific genotype **do not always express the associated phenotype**, meaning some individuals with the disease-causing mutation show no symptoms.
- Incomplete penetrance does not explain why two individuals with similar physical features have different genetic conditions leading to varied tumor risks; it focuses on whether a known mutation will manifest at all, not on different genetic causes for similar traits.
*Pleiotropy*
- This is when a **single gene mutation affects multiple seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits**. Marfan syndrome itself is an example of pleiotropy, as a mutation in *FBN1* affects the skeletal, ocular, and cardiovascular systems.
- While both conditions (Marfan syndrome and MEN 2B) exhibit pleiotropy, this principle doesn't explain why two different genetic conditions would cause similar Marfanoid features but distinct tumor risks. It describes the multiple effects of *one* mutation, not the possibility of *different* mutations leading to similar effects.
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