Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Practice Questions and MCQs
Practice US Medical PG questions for Head and neck fascial spaces. These multiple choice questions (MCQs) cover important concepts and help you prepare for your exams.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 1: A 3-year-old girl is brought to the emergency department by her parents with sudden onset shortness of breath. They tell the emergency physician that their daughter was lying on the bed watching television when she suddenly began gasping for air. They observed a bowl of peanuts lying next to her when they grabbed her up and brought her to the emergency department. Her respirations are 25/min, the pulse is 100/min and the blood pressure is 90/65 mm Hg. The physical findings as of now are apparently normal. She is started on oxygen and is sent in for a chest X-ray. Based on her history and physical exam findings, the cause of her current symptoms would be seen on the X-ray at which of the following sites?
- A. The superior segment of the right lower lobe
- B. The posterior segment of the right lower lobe (Correct Answer)
- C. The lingula of the left upper lobe
- D. The apical segment of the right upper lobe
- E. The apical segment of the left upper lobe
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***The posterior segment of the right lower lobe***
- This is the **most common site for foreign body aspiration in a supine or lying down position** due to gravity and anatomical orientation.
- The history explicitly states the child was **"lying on the bed watching television"** when aspiration occurred, making the **posterior segment of the right lower lobe** the most gravity-dependent and therefore most likely location.
- The **right main bronchus** is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left, making the right lung the predominant site for aspiration, and in supine position, the posterior segment is most dependent [1, 2].
*The superior segment of the right lower lobe*
- The **superior segment of the right lower lobe** is the most common site for aspiration in **upright, standing, or semi-upright positions**, not in a supine position.
- Since the child was lying down (supine), gravity would direct the aspirated peanut to the **posterior segment** rather than the superior segment.
- This would be correct if the child had aspirated while sitting upright.
*The lingula of the left upper lobe*
- The **lingula** is an uncommon site for aspiration because the **left main bronchus** has a sharper angle and smaller diameter compared to the right bronchus [2].
- The anatomical differences make aspiration into the right lung significantly more common than the left lung [2].
- The lingula is not a gravity-dependent area in the supine position.
*The apical segment of the right upper lobe*
- The **apical segment of the right upper lobe** is associated with aspiration when the patient is in **Trendelenburg position** (head lower than feet) or in extreme head-down positions.
- The described scenario of lying flat on the bed does not favor aspiration into apical segments, which are non-gravity-dependent in supine position.
- This location would be contra-gravity in the supine position.
*The apical segment of the left upper lobe*
- Aspiration into the **left upper lobe** is less frequent than the right lung due to the sharper angle of the left main bronchus [2].
- The **apical segment** would require head-down positioning (Trendelenburg) that is not described in this clinical scenario.
- This is the least likely location given both the supine position and left-sided anatomy.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 2: A 26-year-old G1P0 woman at 40 weeks estimated gestational age presents after experiencing labor pains. Pregnancy has been uncomplicated so far. Rupture of membranes occurs, and a transvaginal delivery is performed under epidural anesthesia, and the baby is delivered alive and healthy. The patient voids a few hours after the delivery and complains of mild irritation at the injection site on her back. On the second day, she complains of a severe headache over the back of her head. The headache is associated with pain and stiffness in the neck. Her headache is aggravated by sitting up or standing and relieved by lying down. The pain is relieved slightly by acetaminophen and ibuprofen. The patient is afebrile. Her vital signs include: pulse 100/min, respiratory rate 18/min, and blood pressure 128/84 mm Hg. Which of the following statements is the most accurate regarding this patient’s condition?
- A. A blockage of CSF is the cause of this patient’s headache
- B. An infection is present at the epidural injection site
- C. This patient’s condition can resolve on its own (Correct Answer)
- D. Excessive bed rest will worsen this patient’s condition
- E. Immediate intervention is required
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***This patient’s condition can resolve on its own***
- The symptoms describe a **post-dural puncture headache (PDPH)**, a common complication of epidural anesthesia, which is often **self-limiting** within days to weeks.
- Initial management involves conservative measures like bed rest, hydration, and analgesics, as many cases resolve without specific interventions.
*A blockage of CSF is the cause of this patient’s headache*
- PDPH is caused by a **leakage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)** through the dura mater, leading to **intracranial hypotension**, not a blockage of CSF flow.
- The leakage reduces CSF pressure, causing the brain to sag when upright, stretching pain-sensitive structures like meninges and blood vessels.
*An infection is present at the site of epidural injection site*
- While localized irritation is mentioned, there are no signs of infection such as **fever**, **erythema**, or **purulent discharge** at the injection site, making infection less likely.
- The headache characteristics (positional, severe, neck stiffness) are classic for PDPH, not typically seen in local epidural infections, which would also present with systemic signs.
*Excessive bed rest will worsen this patient’s condition*
- **Bed rest** typically **improves** the symptoms of PDPH by reducing the gravitational pull on the intracranial structures, thereby alleviating the headache.
- Prolonged bed rest is generally recommended in the acute phase, often combined with hydration and caffeine, to help manage symptoms, not worsen them.
*Immediate intervention is required*
- While severe PDPH can be debilitating, immediate invasive intervention (like an **epidural blood patch**) is usually reserved for cases that are **severe and refractory to conservative management** after 24-48 hours.
- Many patients experience spontaneous resolution or significant improvement with conservative measures, making immediate invasive intervention typically unnecessary.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 3: A 28-year-old male presents to his primary care physician with complaints of intermittent abdominal pain and alternating bouts of constipation and diarrhea. His medical chart is not significant for any past medical problems or prior surgeries. He is not prescribed any current medications. Which of the following questions would be the most useful next question in eliciting further history from this patient?
- A. "Does the diarrhea typically precede the constipation, or vice-versa?"
- B. "Is the diarrhea foul-smelling?"
- C. "Please rate your abdominal pain on a scale of 1-10, with 10 being the worst pain of your life"
- D. "Are the symptoms worse in the morning or at night?"
- E. "Can you tell me more about the symptoms you have been experiencing?" (Correct Answer)
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***Can you tell me more about the symptoms you have been experiencing?***
- This **open-ended question** encourages the patient to provide a **comprehensive narrative** of their symptoms, including details about onset, frequency, duration, alleviating/aggravating factors, and associated symptoms, which is crucial for diagnosis.
- In a patient presenting with vague, intermittent symptoms like alternating constipation and diarrhea, allowing them to elaborate freely can reveal important clues that might not be captured by more targeted questions.
*Does the diarrhea typically precede the constipation, or vice-versa?*
- While knowing the sequence of symptoms can be helpful in understanding the **pattern of bowel dysfunction**, it is a very specific question that might overlook other important aspects of the patient's experience.
- It prematurely narrows the focus without first obtaining a broad understanding of the patient's overall symptomatic picture.
*Is the diarrhea foul-smelling?*
- Foul-smelling diarrhea can indicate **malabsorption** or **bacterial overgrowth**, which are important to consider in some gastrointestinal conditions.
- However, this is a **specific symptom inquiry** that should follow a more general exploration of the patient's symptoms, as it may not be relevant if other crucial details are missed.
*Please rate your abdominal pain on a scale of 1-10, with 10 being the worst pain of your life*
- Quantifying pain intensity is useful for assessing the **severity of discomfort** and monitoring changes over time.
- However, for a patient with intermittent rather than acute, severe pain, understanding the **character, location, and triggers** of the pain is often more diagnostically valuable than just a numerical rating initially.
*Are the symptoms worse in the morning or at night?*
- Diurnal variation can be relevant in certain conditions, such as inflammatory bowel diseases where nocturnal symptoms might be more concerning, or functional disorders whose symptoms might be stress-related.
- This is another **specific question** that should come after gathering a more complete initial picture of the patient's symptoms to ensure no key information is overlooked.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 4: A 27-year-old woman comes to the physician because of a 3-day history of a sore throat and fever. Her temperature is 38.5°C (101.3°F). Examination shows edematous oropharyngeal mucosa and enlarged tonsils with purulent exudate. There is tender cervical lymphadenopathy. If left untreated, which of the following conditions is most likely to occur in this patient?
- A. Rheumatic fever (Correct Answer)
- B. Rheumatoid arthritis
- C. Erythema multiforme
- D. Toxic shock syndrome
- E. Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***Rheumatic fever***
- The patient presents with classic symptoms of **streptococcal pharyngitis** (sore throat, fever, tonsillar exudate, tender cervical lymphadenopathy), which, if left untreated, is a major risk factor for developing **acute rheumatic fever**.
- **Acute rheumatic fever** is a serious inflammatory disease that can affect the **heart valves**, joints, brain, and skin, occurring in approximately **3% of untreated cases** of Group A Streptococcal pharyngitis.
*Rheumatoid arthritis*
- This is a **chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease** primarily affecting the synovial joints, not typically associated with an acute streptococcal infection.
- It involves a different pathophysiological mechanism and is not a direct complication of untreated streptococcal pharyngitis.
*Erythema multiforme*
- This is an **acute, self-limiting skin condition** often triggered by infections (e.g., Herpes simplex virus) or medications, resulting in target lesions.
- While infections can cause it, **streptococcal pharyngitis** is not a common or direct cause, and it's not a systemic complication similar to rheumatic fever.
*Toxic shock syndrome*
- This is a **rapidly progressing infectious disease** characterized by fever, rash, hypotension, and multi-organ failure, most often caused by toxins produced by *Staphylococcus aureus* or *Streptococcus pyogenes*.
- While *Streptococcus pyogenes* (Group A Strep) can cause it, toxic shock syndrome is an **acute complication** rather than a late sequela of untreated infection, making **rheumatic fever** the more characteristic delayed complication.
*Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis*
- While this is another serious immune-mediated complication of **streptococcal infections**, it **more commonly follows skin infections (impetigo)** than pharyngitis.
- **Rheumatic fever** is the most characteristic and clinically significant late complication of untreated streptococcal **pharyngitis** specifically, with greater emphasis in clinical practice due to its potential for permanent cardiac valve damage.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 5: A 42-year-old woman comes to the physician because of increasing pain in the right hip for 2 months. The pain is intermittent, presenting at the lateral side of the hip and radiating towards the thigh. It is aggravated while climbing stairs or lying on the right side. Two weeks ago, the patient was treated with a course of oral prednisone for exacerbation of asthma. Her current medications include formoterol-budesonide and albuterol inhalers. Vital signs are within normal limits. Examination shows tenderness to palpation over the upper lateral part of the right thigh. There is no swelling. The patient is placed in the left lateral decubitus position. Abducting the extended right leg against the physician's resistance reproduces the pain. The remainder of the examination shows no abnormalities. An x-ray of the pelvis shows no abnormalities. Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis?
- A. Osteoarthritis of the hip
- B. Osteonecrosis of femoral head
- C. Lumbosacral radiculopathy
- D. Greater trochanteric pain syndrome (Correct Answer)
- E. Iliotibial band syndrome
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***Greater trochanteric pain syndrome***
- The patient's symptoms of **lateral hip pain** radiating to the thigh, aggravated by activity and lying on the affected side, and **tenderness over the greater trochanter** are classic for **greater trochanteric pain syndrome** (GTPS).
- Pain reproduction with **abduction against resistance** (a specific test for GTPS) and normal X-rays further support this diagnosis.
*Osteoarthritis of the hip*
- Typically causes **groin pain** that can radiate to the buttock or knee, not primarily lateral hip pain.
- X-rays would likely show signs of **joint space narrowing**, osteophytes, or subchondral sclerosis, which are absent here.
*Osteonecrosis of femoral head*
- While **corticosteroid use** is a risk factor, osteonecrosis usually presents with **groin or buttock pain** and would likely show abnormalities on X-ray (advanced stages) or MRI (early stages).
- The specific tenderness and pain reproduction with abduction against resistance are not typical for osteonecrosis.
*Lumbosacral radiculopathy*
- Would typically present with pain radiating **down the leg** in a dermatomal pattern, often accompanied by **neurological deficits** such as sensory loss, weakness, or reflex changes.
- The examination findings of isolated lateral hip tenderness and pain with resisted abduction do not support radiculopathy.
*Iliotibial band syndrome*
- More commonly affects **runners** or cyclists and causes pain along the **lateral aspect of the knee**, although it can present as lateral hip pain.
- While it can manifest with lateral hip pain, the focal tenderness over the greater trochanter and pain on resisted abduction make **GTPS** a more precise diagnosis.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 6: A 47-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with a fever and a headache. Her symptoms started yesterday and have rapidly progressed. Initially, she was experiencing just a fever and a headache which she was treating with acetaminophen. It rapidly progressed to blurry vision, chills, nausea, and vomiting. The patient has a past medical history of diabetes and hypertension and she is currently taking insulin, metformin, lisinopril, and oral contraceptive pills. Her temperature is 104°F (40.0°C), blood pressure is 157/93 mmHg, pulse is 120/min, respirations are 15/min, and oxygen saturation is 98% on room air. Upon further inspection, the patient also demonstrates exophthalmos in the affected eye. The patient's extraocular movements are notably decreased in the affected eye with reduced vertical and horizontal gaze. The patient also demonstrates decreased sensation near the affected eye in the distribution of V1 and V2. While the patient is in the department waiting for a CT scan, she becomes lethargic and acutely altered. Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis?
- A. Acute closed angle glaucoma
- B. Cavernous sinus thrombosis (Correct Answer)
- C. Brain abscess
- D. Periorbital cellulitis
- E. Intracranial hemorrhage
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***Cavernous sinus thrombosis***
- The rapid progression of symptoms, **exophthalmos**, decreased extraocular movements (involving cranial nerves III, IV, and VI that pass through the cavernous sinus), and V1/V2 sensory deficits (trigeminal nerve branches) are classic signs of **cavernous sinus thrombosis**. The patient's acute alteration and lethargy point to CNS involvement.
- The patient's oral contraceptive use is a risk factor for **thrombosis**, and her diabetic and hypertensive status may contribute to her vulnerability to infections, which can lead to cavernous sinus thrombosis.
*Acute closed angle glaucoma*
- Acute closed-angle glaucoma typically presents with sudden, severe eye pain, blurred vision, and halos, often without systemic symptoms like fever or rapid progression to altered mental status.
- While it causes blurry vision, it does not typically cause **exophthalmos**, multiple extraocular muscle palsies, or deficits in V1/V2 sensation.
*Brain abscess*
- A brain abscess can cause fever, headache, and altered mental status, but it less commonly presents with the specific combination of **exophthalmos**, multiple cranial nerve palsies affecting eye movement, and V1/V2 sensory deficits.
- It would typically cause focal neurological deficits related to the specific brain region affected, rather than a constellation of orbital and systemic symptoms like this.
*Periorbital cellulitis*
- Periorbital cellulitis causes eyelid swelling, redness, and pain, and can be associated with fever, but it typically does not cause **exophthalmos**, decreased extraocular movements, or sensory deficits in the V1/V2 distribution as seen in this patient.
- Infection is limited to tissues anterior to the orbital septum and generally resolves with antibiotics without progression to severe neurological symptoms.
*Intracranial hemorrhage*
- Intracranial hemorrhage can cause sudden headache, altered mental status, and focal neurological deficits, but it rarely presents with **fever**, **exophthalmos**, or the specific cranial nerve palsies described without other clear signs of a stroke (e.g., sudden weakness or speech changes).
- The presence of fever and the constellation of orbital signs make hemorrhage less likely as the primary diagnosis.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 7: A 54-year-old woman comes to the physician because of a 1-day history of fever, chills, and double vision. She also has a 2-week history of headache and foul-smelling nasal discharge. Her temperature is 39.4°C (103°F). Examination shows mild swelling around the left eye. Her left eye does not move past midline on far left gaze but moves normally when looking to the right. Without treatment, which of the following findings is most likely to occur in this patient?
- A. Hemifacial anhidrosis
- B. Jaw deviation
- C. Absent corneal reflex (Correct Answer)
- D. Relative afferent pupillary defect
- E. Hypoesthesia of the earlobe
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***Absent corneal reflex***
- This patient's symptoms (fever, chills, headache, foul-smelling nasal discharge, periorbital swelling, and ophthalmoplegia) suggest **cavernous sinus thrombosis** secondary to a sinus infection.
- The cavernous sinus contains cranial nerves III, IV, VI, V1, and V2. Untreated, the infection and thrombosis can easily spread to affect **cranial nerve V1 (ophthalmic branch of trigeminal nerve)**, leading to an absent corneal reflex.
*Hemifacial anhidrosis*
- This symptom, along with ptosis and miosis, is indicative of **Horner's syndrome**, which results from damage to the ipsilateral **sympathetic pathway**.
- While cavernous sinus thrombosis can rarely involve sympathetic fibers, it's not the most direct or common neurological sequela compared to trigeminal nerve involvement.
*Jaw deviation*
- **Jaw deviation** typically occurs due to weakness or paralysis of the **motor branch of the trigeminal nerve (V3)**, which innervates the muscles of mastication.
- Cavernous sinus thrombosis primarily affects V1 and V2, and V3 involvement, while possible, is less common and usually presents later than V1 or V2 deficits.
*Relative afferent pupillary defect*
- A relative afferent pupillary defect (RAPD, or Marcus Gunn pupil) indicates a lesion in the **afferent visual pathway** (e.g., optic nerve or retina).
- While vision can be affected in cavernous sinus thrombosis due to optic nerve compression or venous congestion, RAPD is not the most direct or specific neurological complication expected from the provided symptoms.
*Hypoesthesia of the earlobe*
- Sensation to the earlobe is primarily supplied by the **great auricular nerve (C2-C3 cervical spinal nerves)** with minor contribution from the **auricular branch of the vagus nerve (CN X)**.
- Cavernous sinus thrombosis does not involve these nerves, and hypoesthesia of the earlobe is not a characteristic finding.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 8: A 35-year-old woman presents with progressive vision loss and severe headache. MRI shows cavernous sinus thrombosis with extension into the superior ophthalmic vein. Blood cultures grow Staphylococcus aureus. History reveals she had squeezed a facial pustule near her upper lip 5 days prior. Evaluate the anatomical explanation and risk stratification for this complication.
- A. Direct lymphatic spread from facial infection due to rich subcutaneous lymphatic network
- B. Valveless facial venous system allowing retrograde flow from danger triangle to cavernous sinus (Correct Answer)
- C. Contiguous spread through cribriform plate from nasal cavity involvement
- D. Hematogenous seeding via internal jugular vein and sigmoid sinus
- E. Extension through pterygoid venous plexus communicating with middle meningeal vein
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***Valveless facial venous system allowing retrograde flow from danger triangle to cavernous sinus***
- The **danger triangle of the face** (perioral and nasal areas) contains **valveless veins**, which allows blood to flow in a **retrograde** direction toward the intracranial space.
- Infections in this region can spread via the **angular vein** into the **superior ophthalmic vein**, directly reaching the **cavernous sinus** and causing septic thrombosis.
*Direct lymphatic spread from facial infection due to rich subcutaneous lymphatic network*
- While the face has a rich **lymphatic network**, lymphatic drainage typically leads to **submandibular or cervical lymph nodes**, not the cavernous sinus.
- Cavernous sinus thrombosis is a **vascular complication** specifically involving the **venous system**, not the lymphatic system.
*Contiguous spread through cribriform plate from nasal cavity involvement*
- The **cribriform plate** is a route for infections to enter the **subarachnoid space**, primarily leading to **meningitis** or brain abscesses.
- It does not serve as the primary anatomical conduit for superficial facial infections to localize within the **cavernous sinus**.
*Hematogenous seeding via internal jugular vein and sigmoid sinus*
- The **internal jugular vein** and **sigmoid sinus** represent the **outflow tract** away from the brain; flow to the cavernous sinus through this route would be highly atypical.
- Bacterial seeding via this route would usually imply **systemic bacteremia** or infection in the **mastoid air cells**, rather than a localized facial pustule.
*Extension through pterygoid venous plexus communicating with middle meningeal vein*
- The **pterygoid venous plexus** can communicate with the cavernous sinus, but it primarily drains the **infratemporal fossa** and deep face, not the superficial upper lip.
- The **middle meningeal vein** drains into the pterygoid plexus or sphenoparietal sinus and is not the classic path for **danger triangle** infections.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 9: A 52-year-old diabetic man undergoes emergent fasciotomy for compartment syndrome of the right leg following a tibia-fibula fracture. Intraoperatively, the anterior compartment muscles appear dusky and do not contract with stimulation. The lateral compartment muscles appear viable. Deep posterior compartment shows borderline viability with weak contraction. Superficial posterior compartment is clearly viable. Synthesize a management plan that optimizes limb salvage while minimizing morbidity.
- A. Debride anterior compartment only, leave wounds open, second look in 48 hours for other compartments
- B. Debride all nonviable muscle, preserve borderline tissue, second look in 24 hours (Correct Answer)
- C. Complete debridement of anterior and deep posterior compartments with immediate wound closure
- D. Below-knee amputation given extent of muscle necrosis and diabetes
- E. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for 48 hours before deciding on debridement versus amputation
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***Debride all nonviable muscle, preserve borderline tissue, second look in 24 hours***
- Immediate **debridement** of non-contractile, dusky muscle is crucial to prevent **myoglobinuria**, metabolic acidosis, and **acute kidney injury**.
- Marginal tissue should be preserved during the initial surgery to maximize potential **limb salvage**, necessitating a **mandatory second-look** procedure within 24-48 hours.
*Debride anterior compartment only, leave wounds open, second look in 48 hours for other compartments*
- Leaving known nonviable muscle in the anterior compartment for 48 hours increases the risk of **secondary infection** and systemic inflammatory response syndrome.
- Re-exploration should be performed sooner (24 hours) when multiple compartments show **borderline viability** to ensure timely intervention.
*Complete debridement of anterior and deep posterior compartments with immediate wound closure*
- **Immediate wound closure** is strictly contraindicated in compartment syndrome as it can cause a recurrence of increased pressure and facilitates **anaerobic infection**.
- Over-debridement of the **deep posterior compartment** before its viability is definitively determined could result in unnecessary loss of **plantarflexion** and sensation.
*Below-knee amputation given extent of muscle necrosis and diabetes*
- **Amputation** is premature as the lateral and superficial posterior compartments are viable, providing a foundation for a **functional limb**.
- While **diabetes** may complicate healing, it is not an absolute indication for primary amputation in the setting of salvageable muscle groups.
*Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for 48 hours before deciding on debridement versus amputation*
- Delaying surgical **debridement** of necrotic tissue to pursue **HBO therapy** is dangerous and allows for the progression of sepsis and muscle breakdown.
- HBO therapy is an **adjunct**, not a replacement for mechanical decompression and removal of dead tissue in **acute compartment syndrome**.
Head and neck fascial spaces US Medical PG Question 10: A 29-year-old man sustains a gunshot wound to the medial upper arm. He presents with inability to flex his elbow and loss of sensation over the lateral forearm. Angiography shows intact brachial artery, but compartment pressures in the anterior arm compartment are 55 mmHg. His blood pressure is 90/60 mmHg after resuscitation. Evaluate the optimal surgical approach considering all clinical factors.
- A. Immediate fasciotomy of anterior compartment with nerve exploration and vascular repair
- B. Fasciotomy of both anterior and posterior compartments with primary nerve repair
- C. Further resuscitation to MAP >65, then fasciotomy with delayed nerve repair
- D. Emergent fasciotomy, debridement, and temporary vascular shunt placement
- E. Complete neurovascular exploration with definitive repair and compartment release (Correct Answer)
Head and neck fascial spaces Explanation: ***Complete neurovascular exploration with definitive repair and compartment release***
- The patient exhibits clinical and objective signs of **acute compartment syndrome** (pressure 55 mmHg) and **musculocutaneous nerve** injury, requiring emergency surgical intervention.
- A total assessment is necessary because the **gunshot wound** trajectory near the medial arm risks occult damage to the **neurovascular bundle** despite initial angiographic findings.
*Immediate fasciotomy of anterior compartment with nerve exploration and vascular repair*
- While an anterior fasciotomy is vital, focusing solely on the anterior compartment may be insufficient if the high-energy trauma caused **posterior compartment** injury.
- **Vascular repair** is not indicated at this stage as angiography has already confirmed the **brachial artery** is intact.
*Fasciotomy of both anterior and posterior compartments with primary nerve repair*
- Primary nerve repair is often contraindicated in **high-velocity gunshot wounds** due to the "zone of injury" and potential for further tissue debridement needs.
- While dual-compartment release is thorough, the emphasis on **primary repair** in an unstable, potentially contaminated trauma setting is surgically premature.
*Further resuscitation to MAP >65, then fasciotomy with delayed nerve repair*
- While hemodynamic stability is important, the **Delta pressure** (60 - 55 = 5 mmHg) is critically low, meaning any delay in fasciotomy will lead to **muscle necrosis**.
- Resuscitation should occur **concurrently** with surgical preparation rather than as a prerequisite that delays limb-saving decompression.
*Emergent fasciotomy, debridement, and temporary vascular shunt placement*
- The use of a **temporary vascular shunt** is reserved for patients with confirmed arterial transection to maintain distal perfusion during damage control.
- Since the **brachial artery** is intact per angiography, shunting is unnecessary and adds pointless risk and operative time.
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